Journal of Archaeological Studies

Ritual Practices in the Kura-Araxes Culture: Hearths and Figurines as Markers of Religious Identity

Bohlool Khani; Akbar Abedi; Nasir Eskandari; Ghader Ebrahimi

Volume 16, Issue 2 , September 2024, , Pages 229-267

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2025.387728.143323

Abstract

The investigation and characterization of the Kura-Araxes culture is a key focus of archaeological research in this field. One of the enigmatic aspects of the Kura-Araxes culture is ... Read More The investigation and characterization of the Kura-Araxes culture is a key focus of archaeological research in this field. One of the enigmatic aspects of the Kura-Araxes culture is the role of religion, rituals, and associated ritual evidence among its people. This aspect holds particular significance not due to its spiritual or supernatural dimensions, but rather because of the limited, scarce, and largely unknown nature of the cultural evidence. Archaeological findings related to this facet of Kura-Araxes culture, such as figurines, hearths, and possibly architectural elements, have been uncovered across the entire expanse of this culture’s territory, from northwest Iran to eastern Anatolia and the South Caucasus. One of the primary objectives of this research is to explore the social identity and ritual beliefs of Kura-Araxes communities, and to identify the symbols, elements, and religious signs of the Kura-Araxes culture. This investigation is based on a combination of library-documentary studies and first-hand archaeological data from excavations in Iran and the broader Kura-Araxes cultural sphere. This research also aims to address the following questions and uncertainties: What insights do archaeological evidence and documents provide regarding the ritual-religious beliefs of Kura-Araxes communities? Additionally, what are the key differences and similarities in the religious beliefs of Kura-Araxes communities across Iran, the Caucasus, and other regions within the Kura-Araxes cultural sphere? More broadly, can we definitively discuss belief systems, religion, rituals, and associated sacred spaces in relation to these communities? The forthcoming study will focus on answering these questions and addressing the stated objectives to clarify some of these ambiguities. The results indicate that while the Kura-Araxes culture and its people did not have dedicated religious spaces or distinct places for their rituals (based on current findings and evidence), it is important to consider two factors: first, the temporal span (3500–2400/2500 BCE) and the continuity of this culture; and second, the contemporary cultures, such as Uruk, which were characterized by established religious practices. Additionally, religious and ritual practices were prevalent among Bronze Age cultures. Therefore, it is unlikely that the Kura-Araxes communities were devoid of religion and rituals. However, rather than a sedentary and fixed culture, if we accept the hypothesis of the Kura-Araxes culture being semi-nomadic pastoral, then their ritual artifacts, such as figurines and hearths, were likely small and portable. Consequently, these artifacts reveal traces of their ritual beliefs, allowing us to consider ritualistic characteristics as part of this culture.

Site Size Hierarchy and the complex chiefdoms in the Bampur Valley during the Chalcolithic Period (4500-3900 B.C) سلسله مراتب محوطه ها و خان سالارهای پیچیده در دره بمپور در دوره مس سنگی (4500-3900 پ.م)

Hossein Moradi; Zahra Rajabioun; Hossein Moradi

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 01 September 2025

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2025.383347.143304

Abstract

دره بمپور در جنوب شرق ایران در استان سیستان و بلوچستان قرار دارد و پیشینه مطالعات باستان شناسی در آن ... Read More دره بمپور در جنوب شرق ایران در استان سیستان و بلوچستان قرار دارد و پیشینه مطالعات باستان شناسی در آن به دهه 30 میلادی و حضور اشتین در منطقه باز می گردد. دره بمپور یکی از مناطق مهم در جنوب شرق ایران برای درک فرایندهای فرهنگی پیش از تاریخ به حساب می آید. مطالعات جدید باستان شناسی در این منطقه شامل بررسی فراگیر باستان شناسی آن در سال 1390 است که در آن 122 محوطه از ادوار مختلف فرهنگی شناسایی شد که 48 محوطه آن مربوط به دوران مس سنگی است که مهمترین محوطه آن تپه چاه حسینی می باشد. علاوه بر آن 47 محوطه کوچک و بزرگ دیگر با اندازه های مختلف نیز شناسایی شد که وجه اشتراک بیشتر آنها حضور سفالهای یحیی VA علاوه بر سفالهای محلی، سفال علی آباد و نوع میری کلات II است که تاریخ آنها به 4500 تا 3600 پیش از میلاد باز میگردد که این تاریخ گزاری بر اساس مطالعات جدید باستان شناسی در نقاط همسایه با دشت بمپور همچون کرمان و مکران است. محوطه های مس سنگی شناسایی شده غالبا اندازه های کوچک کمتر از سه هکتار داشتند. برای درک برخی پیچیدگی های تصمیم سازی در این جوامع محوطه ها با استفاده از نرم افزار آماری SPSS به سه گروه تقسیم شدند و سپس با استفاده از سایر روشهای سنجش آماری فاصله آنها از یکدیگر نیز سنجیده شد که نهایتا ارتباط معنا داری میان اندازه محوطه ها و سلسع مراتب آنها را نشان میداد. For a better understanding of the various aspects of complexity and site size hierarchy, the relationship between site size and the distance of each site from the others was analyzed using SPSS. Consequently, the correlation between them was calculated by Pearson R and regression tests. Ultimately, this analysis demonstrates that examining distances and sizes is meaningful.

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Bronze Age Settlement Patterns in the Silakhor Plain

Abbas moghaddam; abbas Nouri

Volume 9, Issue 2 , April 2018, , Pages 137-155

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2018.211247.142308

Abstract

The Silakhor Plain is one of the key plains in the eastern part of Central Zagros that its suitable environment made a significant base for human habitants since prehistoric time. This ... Read More

Archaeological Investigation of Göyce Qala: An Urartuian Castle in Maragheh Plain, Northwestern Iran

Hossein Naseri Som’eh; Bahman Firouzmandi; Mohsen Sa’dati

Volume 7, Issue 1 , March 2015, , Pages 147-165

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2015.56685

Abstract

According to the inscriptions the eastern and southern shores of Lake Urmia were occupied by Urartuian Empire in 9th century B.C. There have been evidences such as the inscribed documents ... Read More

An Archaeological Study on the Burial Tomb of Ghorban Tower in Hamadan

Reza Nazari Arshad; Mahmoud Tavosi; Sosan Bayani; Javad Neistani

Volume 6, Issue 1 , September 2014, , Pages 149-162

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2014.52681

Abstract

Ghorban Tower as an architectural monument is one of the outstanding resting- place of Islamic era in Hamadan city which has not been studied properly. Previous studies on the Tower ... Read More

Geoarchaeology of Prehistoric Settlements Using Micromorphology Methods (The case study: Meimanatabad Cluster)

Mehran Maghsoudi; Seyed Mohammad Zamanzadeh; asghar navidfar; Rohollah Yosefi Zoshk; Hojatollah Ahmadpour

Volume 7, Issue 2 , December 2016, , Pages 149-164

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2015.57753

Abstract

The ancient hills are the human’s close and far activities sense. These places may be the transit camp survivors or ruins towns or villages. This paper studies the archaeology ... Read More

The staircase of ruined palace plan rectification and documentation of the Artaxerxes III

Afshin Yazdani

Volume 4, Issue 2 , February 2013, , Pages 159-178

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2013.32125

Abstract

It was constructed a palace, at 4th cent B.C, at the summit of Persepolis with a broad portico and staircase before "Hadish" courtyard that has not been remained except parts of the ... Read More

Strontium Isotope Ratio (87Sr/86Sr) To Determine Human Skeletons Origins From The Ancient Cemeteries, Case study: An Iron Age Cemetery of Gohar Tepe

Fahime Sheikhshoaee; kamal aldin niknami

Volume 10, Issue 2 , January 2019, , Pages 159-170

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.68536

Abstract

The isotopic analysis solves many important issues in archeology and anthropology including the reconstruction of past diets, tracing the footsteps of the ancient migrations and recognition ... Read More

Archeological Studies on Northern Karūn Basin (Chahārmahāl-o-Bakhtiyārī Province

Ali-Asghar Nowrūzi

Volume 1, Issue 2 , February 2010, , Pages 161-175

Abstract

Chah?rmah?l-o-Bakhtiy?r? Province has an area of some one percent of the area of Iran and is situated in the northern basin of Karun river, which is one of the most vital flows of the ... Read More

Chemical Analysis of Tepe Zaghe Anthropogenic Soils to Identify Particular Activity Areas

Kamal Aldin * Niknami; Iraj Rezaee

Volume 5, Issue 2 , March 2014, , Pages 163-182

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2014.50404

Abstract

Archaeological investigations on the soil of archaeological sites indicates that human settlement and residence in a particular area, may lead to enrichment of certain elements such ... Read More

Archaeometrical Study of Achaemenid Glazed Bricks Found from Tall-e-Ajori Excavation in Persepolis

Soodabeh Yousefnejad; Reza Vahidzadeh; Mohammad Hasan Talebian

Volume 5, Issue 1 , December 2013, , Pages 165-179

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2013.35950

Abstract

Achaemenid glazed bricks of archaeological excavation of Tall-e-Ajori in Persepolis city were studied by multiple instrumental analysis methods such as XRF, XRD, SEM-EDS, ICP ... Read More

A Comparative Study on the Urbanization Periods of the Mehran Plain Based on the Pottery Finds from Chogha Ahowan

Parisa Nekouei; Hassan Fazeli Nashli; Ardeshir Javanmard Zadeh

Volume 6, Issue 2 , March 2015, , Pages 167-184

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2015.54181

Abstract

Mehran Plain is located in the cultural region of South West Iran. Studying the geographic location of this region in relation to the formation of early states is important. The cultural ... Read More

Typological Study and Comparative Chronology of the Pottery Vessels from Tepe Giyan in Nihavand: The Assemblage of Moghadam Museum of University of Tehran

Niloufar Moghimi

Volume 8, Issue 2 , March 2017, , Pages 167-188

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2017.61775

Abstract

Tepe Giyan, which situated in Nihavand city, is one the most important and the first excavated sites in the cultural-geographical zone of Central Zagros. Excavations in this site had ... Read More

Studying the Ancient Metallurgy of Qazvin Plain Based on the Metal Samples Discovered from The Iron Age II Graves of Sagzabad Cemetery

Talhe Ghodousiyan; Ahad Samadi; Hasan Talai

Volume 9, Issue 1 , August 2017, , Pages 167-187

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2017.64011

Abstract

Ancient metallurgy is one of the technological processes were seen from discovered natural native copper in Tappeh Zagheh (6th millennium B.C.). It was continued progressively in Tappeh ... Read More

New Uruk Findings in NW Iran; Hasanlu VIII -VII and the Lack of Kura-Araxes Evidence in Southern Parts of the Lake Urmia Region

Akbar Abedi; Reza Heidari; salah salimi

Volume 11, Issue 1 , May 2019, , Pages 167-183

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.71110

Abstract

During 2007 archaeological survey of Little Zab River in Sardasht district in NW Iran, 6 typical Uruk (Uruk Related) sites have been brought to light. One of the important one is Tepe ... Read More

An Archaeological Analysis of the Existing Shell Vessels (Libation Shell) in the Archaeological Contexts of the Iranian Plateau in the Third to the First Millennium B.C.

Parisa Naseri; Abbas Motarjem; David S. Reese

Volume 15, Issue 2 , December 2023, , Pages 167-183

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2023.342641.143113

Abstract

Sea shells are natural-biological objects. They are embedded in geological layers in the form of fossils, but also, to find in archaeological deposits as a result of human activities. ... Read More Sea shells are natural-biological objects. They are embedded in geological layers in the form of fossils, but also, to find in archaeological deposits as a result of human activities. Archaeologists can use the provenance of shells in the functional analysis of ancient sites in terms of social archeology and prehistoric trading activities. Aarcheological excavations in several sites of the Iranian Plateau have shown that from the 3rd third millennium B.C. onwards, finds of of sea shells (e.g. Lambis, Dentalium, etc.) rapidely increased. Such shells were for instance discovered from ritual cemetery contexts such as Shahdad, Tepe Hesar, Kale Nisar cemeteries or Bani Surma. These objects are mainly used as natural or polished shells. In some cases, they served as a raw material for making all kinds of beads, buttons, and other ornamental objects.. The main question is to understand the relationship between the use of seashells and archaeological context, and also, their role in Bronze Age ritual life. In this article, the descriptive, analytical method has been used in the biological recognition of all types of shells. This method is also used based on similar studies on this issue in Mesopotamia's archeology of the Sumerian-Akkadian period. The distribution of recognizable species shows that these objects are concentrated in the settlements from south to southeast of Iran in the coastal strip of the Persian Gulf, and from the Oman Sea to the Zagros intermountain valleys, as well as in the northwest and northeast of Iran. The biological origin can be placed in the northern shores of the Oman Sea to the Gulf of Kutch on the northern coast of the Indian Ocean. It seems that with the growth and development of urbanization in Southwest Asia and especially the development of sea trade, oysters have been traded as valuable goods and other prestige goods. The importance of the shell findings is more than the value of the shells themselves because they were used as sacred goods in religious affairs. Analysis of the fields where the shells were discovered is more related to cemeteries and temples as sacred spaces. Also, the significant presence of Lambis shells for the production of specific ritual bowls, placed together with bronze axes in graves, can be seen as the reflection of a patriarchic tradition in the social-political organisiation of the third and second millennia B.C. Despite many excavations and the discovery of many samples of these types of shells, no furthergoing investigation on these specific objects was undertaken so far. This desideratum reveals more valuable findings in the archeology of the Iranian plateau. Therefore, one of this article's final goals is to focus more on analyzing the context of the discovery of seashells in future Excavation

Womanity as Represnted on-the-Cylinder Seals An Enactive Semiotics of Female Visualisation in Ancient Susiana (3500-1000 B.C.)

Vahid Askarpour

Volume 10, Issue 1 , August 2018, , Pages 169-187

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2018.215872.142331

Abstract

The paper concerns with an investigation of beginnings and evolution of female figures on the cylinder seals of ancient Susiana plain during the middle of 4th millennium up to the end ... Read More

Archaeological Excavation at Taj Amir Cemetery, Yasouj

Ebrahim Ghezelbash; Mohammad Javad Jafari; Nowrooz Rajabi; Korosh Mohammadkhani

Volume 8, Issue 1 , April 2016, , Pages 171-190

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2016.59501

Abstract

Taj Amir Cemetery is located in southern side of Dena Mountain and east of Yasouj city in Kohgiluyeh and Boyerahmad Province. The cemetery was discovered in 2009 during the construction ... Read More

A Study on the Battle of Bahram–e Goor in Keshmahin on the Basis of Motifs from Bandian–e Dargaz

ali sadrayi; Mostansar Gholinejad; Hossein Koohestani; Mahmoud Toghraie; Mahia Azar

Volume 11, Issue 2 , October 2019, , Pages 171-190

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.73113

Abstract

The analyses and interpretations of archaeological findings and historical texts of the Sassanid period have not yielded satisfactory results in some cases despite extensive evidence. ... Read More

An Analytical Look at Archaeology and Its Place in Iran

Simā Yadollāhi; Abbās Yalveh’i

Volume 3, Issue 1 , July 2011, , Pages 177-194

Abstract

Almost a century and a half ago, the name or concept of archeology was not commonly known in Iran. As a branch of human sciences, archeology emerged in Iran as a consequence of the ... Read More

A Look at the Indexes of Style and Symbol in the Study of Archaeological Evidences and Their Role in our Accessibility to the Past Conceptions

Hekmatollah Mollasalehi; Sima Yadollahi

Volume 1, Issue 1 , January 2009, , Pages 185-198

Abstract

Dichotomy is a serious obstacle in archaeological studies; it is a problem all fields of human, social and historical knowledge and even natural sciences are faced with. However, in ... Read More

The Bathhouse of Haj Mir-Hassan Qazvin, a Bath from Early Qajar Era

Parivash Akbari; Hayedeh Laleh; Ali Shojaee Esfahani

Volume 3, Issue 2 , February 2012, , Pages 193-219

Abstract

The public bathhouses are included in buildings as public utilities that have been expanded throughout Islamic realm by arising Islamic religion that cleaning is the preamble for most ... Read More

The Architectural Tradition of Tombs in the Third Millennium BC in Dambe Kou, Makran, Sistan and Baluchestan Province

Morteza Hessari

Volume 13, Issue 2 , September 2021, , Pages 199-224

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2021.301810.142872

Abstract

The most important area that is directly related to the civilization of the Sind and the southern coastal countries of the Persian Gulf is the Makkoran. These three cultural areas have ... Read More The most important area that is directly related to the civilization of the Sind and the southern coastal countries of the Persian Gulf is the Makkoran. These three cultural areas have many cultural commonalities, especially in the third millennium BC. One of the cultural commonalities of material and spiritual expression is the burial in this period, which shows the same cultural identity in this part of the world. Death is the simplest reality of life, and the actions performed during burial a kind of concern for the fate of the dead. Burial is the ritual of separation from one world to another, and burial is a kind of commitment to the deceased as a member of society. Burial and related traditions are a reflection of the spiritual and ritual aspects of human cultures. Common similarities can be found among different cultures. One of the centers where these commonalities can be found is Dembukuh Cemetery. This cemetery Dambe Kouh is the largest cemetery and area that has been discovered in the southwestern tip of Iran. The area from the third millennium BC It has been established periodically until the Islamic period. The site should have close interactions with the cultural areas around it, especially the Sind Civilization, due to the data obtained from it. The methodology of this research is descriptive-analytical and comparative and the basic and basic data required are obtained through field studies that include prospecting and surface-level surveys. The overall result is a homogeneous appearance of graves, a few graves and the use of graves in later periods. The most important area that is directly related to the civilization of the Sind and the southern coastal countries of the Persian Gulf is the Makkoran. These three cultural areas have many cultural commonalities, especially in the third millennium BC. One of the cultural commonalities of material and spiritual expression is the burial in this period, which shows the same cultural identity in this part of the world

Qolam Tepe of Jafarabad: Recognition of the Sialk VI Satellite Site in Kashan Foothills

Reza Naseri; Malekzadeh Mehrdad

Volume 14, Issue 2 , September 2022, , Pages 199-224

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2022.337559.143081

Abstract

Until recently, the culture of the late Iron Age in the central Iranian Plateau had only been identified at the southern mound of Sialk. In this study, a newly discovered site, called ... Read More

Study of the Evolution of Finny Tower Tombs in Islamic Architecture: the Case Study of Azhar Tower of Dargazin, Iran

Reza Nazari arshad; Hassan Karimian

Volume 13, Issue 1 , July 2021, , Pages 211-234

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.290416.142790

Abstract

Architecture is among the important branches of art and civilization and architectural structures, beside their practical uses, have also served as the ground for the emergence of different ... Read More Architecture is among the important branches of art and civilization and architectural structures, beside their practical uses, have also served as the ground for the emergence of different arts and as indications of the grand status and glories of their founders. Among the various branches of architecture, tomb structures and funeral monuments have long played significant roles in culture, civilization and society of Iran and also have occupied an essential place in the history of our architecture. Therefore, beside the mosques, shrines have been the most popular public buildings in Iran and have entered the cultural tissues of Iranian life and society. A large portion of the evolution of architecture in Islamic era can be traced in the holy shrines and tombs. The formation, identity and being of these buildings are often closely connected with great local, national, political and religious leaders and characters. Thee architectural monuments also deserve scholarly studies in terms of their artistic, social, historical, cultural and religious aspects. Caring for shrines and building them is related to belief in hereafter, desire for immortality and love of followers and lovers of the deceased persons. Building of such places which come under various names such as “burial place”, “shrine”, “sanctuary”, “sanctum”, “receptacle”, “tomb”, “sepulcher”, “tower”, “imamzadeh”, etc. roughly began in 4th century A H. and became then more prevalent is eastern and northern Iran through the practice and believes of various sects and dynasties. The process became especially popular during the Shite dynasties such as Alavids (250-360 A H), and Buwayhids (320-447 A. H.) whose political power and rule helped the building of such places, shrines and tombs more than ever. In the Islamic societies of middle centuries, shrines found a very high stature among the masses and ordinary religious people. Interestingly, building shrines for great religious and social leaders has been more passionately pursued in Iran than in other Islamic countries so that, Ernst Diez, the Austrian art historian, “such buildings are the most popular and prevalent in Islamic Iran.” In fact, it was for the grand status and importance of such places that the first major undertaking that kings did after succession, was erecting graves and shrines for themselves and their fathers and relatives so as to be redeemed by God and gain an everlasting fame and name. Regarding their shape and format, sepulchers are basically divided into two forms: tower tombs and non-tower (rectangles tombs). A large portion of the shrines in Islamic era are tower tombs which have different shapes such as circular, multisided and finny, and also have common features such as a tall outside tower, and in them, emphasis is on the altitude not the extent of the building. Although some scholars have tried to work out a justification for the birth and building of tower tombs, none has ever come up with an all-satisfying evidence for the formation of such building along with the Islamic traditions governing them. In Hamadan province, Iran, there are some tower tombs from different Islamic eras, such as Ghorban Tower, Baba Hossein Tower in Malayer, Hayaquq Tower Tomb, etc. in the present study, we have undertaken to introduce one such tower tomb and describe its architectural and archeological characteristics; that is “Azhar Tower” that is located at the Dargazin section of Razan city, Hamadan Province. The city is situated at the north of Hamadan province and has many historical and cultural works belonging to different historical epochs, mostly Islamic era. The tower tomb with finny shape ,also called AzharImamzadeh, is one of the works from the Islamic era, but has not so far been comprehensively studied and there exists still many ambiguities about its history and being. The present study, thus, aims at considering the structural features of this building, its decorative elements, architectural innovations, and finding about the identity of the person buried under it. It also intends to consider this tomb as one of the few tower tombs with a finny shape and a star-like base for the tower, and comparing it with similar buildings in order to trace the mutual influences exchanged between it and similar forms both before and after its date. The research methodology applied for this purpose is an archeological case studythrough a descriptive-analytic study alongside using written sources such as historical and geographical documents and travelogues. The main questions posed by the project are: 1- in which historical age was the Azghar Tower built and with which similar architectural works can it be compared? 2- What are the innovations, and the architectural and decorative elements of the Tower? 3- Regarding the great importance of the Dargazin region in different historical eras, especially in middle Islamic epochs and the great sociopolitical people that have emerged in this region, what can be known about the identity of the person buried in there? The final results of the study show that the Azhar Tower Tomb dates back to the first half of the eighth century A. H. when the Ilkhanate (654-750 A H). Also, as the last tower shrine with a finny design in the history of Iranian Islamic architecture, it had been built based on the architectural and decorative forms dominant in the Ilkhanate age, and had been affected by some tower tombs in the central and northern parts of Iran, particularly, Imamzadeh Abdullah, and Ubayd Allah of Damavand, and the Bastam Tower. It is also most probable that the Azhar Tower was built for the burial of one of the outstanding man of the Dargazin region, named Sheik Sharaf-o-AldinDargazini.

Volume 17 (2025)

Volume 16 (2024)

Volume 15 (2023)

Volume 14 (2022)

Volume 13 (2021)

Volume 12 (2020)

Volume 11 (2019)

Volume 10 (2018)

Volume 9 (2017)

Volume 8 (2016)

Volume 7 (2015)

Volume 6 (2014)

Volume 5 (2013)

Volume 4 (2012)

Volume 3 (2011)

Volume 1 (2009)

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