Journal of Archaeological Studies

Explaining the Role of Ecological Variables Affecting the Survival Process - Development and Stagnation of Ardabil Islamic City Life

Seyyd mehdi Hosseyni nia; Karim Hajizade; Habib Shahbazi Shiran; Reza Rezaloo

Volume 16, Issue 1 , February 2024, , Pages 87-108

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.284959.142750

Abstract

The city of Ardabil, due to its unique geographical and strategic location, was known in the early Islamic centuries as a crossroads and the most important city of Azerbaijan in economic, ... Read More

Coptic Textiles in Tension of the Political, Economic and Cultural Developments of Egypt, Rome and Iran

roya deyjou; Mostafa Dehpahlavan; Kamaleddin Niknami

Volume 15, Issue 1 , April 2023, , Pages 89-106

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.293773.142818

Abstract

Copts are famous artists that are responsible for producing woven fabrics with warm and brilliant colors. During this period, we see the effectiveness of textiles as a means of expressing ... Read More Copts are famous artists that are responsible for producing woven fabrics with warm and brilliant colors. During this period, we see the effectiveness of textiles as a means of expressing social status, communication and aesthetic values, which arises from their widespread integration into daily-life from a practical, social and economic-political point of view. Generally, the most important role of Coptic textiles was clothing, which in addition to the functional aspect in burials, provides a clear picture of the diversity of products, weavers skills and social status of individuals. Due to the importance of this fact, the method of covering and a strong desire for fashion is noteworthy. Meanwhile, change in style and weaving techniques follow the reflection of economic and industrial needs, in addition to supplying domestic and foreign markets, it served military needs as well. In this regard, a thorough understanding of the political as well as the import or export of the textiles, requires examination of the many occupations such as the weaving centers, economic factors and aspects of social life that lead to their production and use of the textiles at all levels of society. Therefore, what we are discussing with a historical-analytical approach in this essay is not restricted to the functions, finding place of the textile and the export of the textiles produced beyond the borders of the province but also the multilateral exchange of cultures are considered too. It can be clearly seen in the widespread popularity of some motives and decorative tapestry. This is because in the continuously evolving their production, coptic weavers not only managed to link the heritage of antique, late classical style in Egypt and Sassanian Persia to what the Arab conquerors brought, but also succeeded in leaving an enormous influence in the region of the Roman Empire and thus through the trade of textiles, succeeded in offering their art and textiles industry far and wide.

Ban Makhmal (Faramarz): A Late Chalcolithic Site in the Northern Valley of the Central Zagros, Sonqor and Koliyaei Township, Kermanshah Province

Mohsen Heydari Dastenaei; Rouhollah Shirazi

Volume 12, Issue 1 , May 2020, , Pages 97-116

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2020.245563.142497

Abstract

Despite numerous archeological activities in the recent years in Kermanshah province, there has been little attention to the eastern parts of the province, including Sonqor and Koliaei. ... Read More

The Analysis of Settlement Patterns of Iron Age in Piranshahr Plain Relying on Geographic Information System (GIS)

Obaidollah Sorkhabi; reza rezaloo; KARIM HAJIZADEH

Volume 13, Issue 4 , September 2022, , Pages 97-115

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2021.257545.142564

Abstract

Interpretation of human’s old behaviors in the past and paying attention to complex and interactive processes between humans and the environment to be understood in terms of their ... Read More Interpretation of human’s old behaviors in the past and paying attention to complex and interactive processes between humans and the environment to be understood in terms of their dependence on the components of the natural and ecological environment is the center of modern archaeology’s attention. Archaeological surveys and analysis of settlement patterns are considered well-known methods in archaeology to help identify these interactive processes.With the studies of the Archaeological Board of the University of Pennsylvania on Hasanlu Hill and the Sandus Plain, the southern basin of Lake Urmia became one of the most important archaeological sites and a basis for chronology in northwestern Iran. Meanwhile, Piranshahr plain on one hand due to its proximity toHasanlu area in the north and Rabat area in the south and on the other hand due to the neighborhood of this area with great powers such as Assyria, Urartu and Mana in the first half of the first millennium BC, Is one of the important areas in terms of archaeological studies of the Iron Age in northwestern Iran. This study examined the Piranshahr plain, assuming that the Iron Age settlements of the Piranshahr plain follow a specific settlement pattern. In this research, using field and library studies and geographical analysis models, a methodical and appropriate interpretation of the distribution of Iron Age areas and the first millennium BCPiranshahr plain was presented. Studies have shown that the Iron Age settlements in the region are most affected by two geographical factors, altitude from sea surface and access to rivers, and this has led to the creation of linear networks in the course of rivers resulting to a suitable choice of height relating to the plain. It was also found that the Iron Age settlements of this plain, following the shape of the roughness and natural geography of the region in the first half of the first millennium BC, by creating a specific settlement hierarchy, tended to form an independent local political unit. The existence of this political unit in modern Assyrian writings as Xubuskie could be identified.

Petrographic and X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy Methods for the study of Beveled Rim Bowls from Kaleh Kub

Nazli Darkhal; Mohamad Hossein Azizi Kharanaghi; Yasin Sedghi; Seyed Iraj Beheshti

Volume 17, Issue 1 , June 2025, , Pages 105-127

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2024.371275.143247

Abstract

AbstractKaleh Kub, an ancient site located in the Sarayan district of eastern Iran’s South Khorasan province has been excavated since 2018, revealing evidence of Beveled Rim Bowls ... Read More AbstractKaleh Kub, an ancient site located in the Sarayan district of eastern Iran’s South Khorasan province has been excavated since 2018, revealing evidence of Beveled Rim Bowls and other diagnostic pottery types attributed to the 4th millennium BCE. Kaleh Kub has a long sequence divided into four different periods, with cultural deposits attributed to the period of early urbanization, notably from the second period of this site, known as the cultural horizon of Susa II. Kaleh Kub is the easternmost site on the Iranian plateau where Beveled Rim Bowls have been found. Given the site’s importance in recognizing the distribution of this pottery type, this paper aims to structurally analyze clay samples and compare them with three sites index sites with similar technology: Chogha Mish, Abu Fandova, and Tall-e Iblis. The analysis found that while the construction technique of the pottery samples followed a similar pattern, their constituent structure was not similar, indicating different origins of construction materials. This suggests local production of Beveled Rim Bowls pottery at the Kaleh Kub site.Keywords: Kaleh Kub, Tall-e Iblis, Chogha Mish, Abu Fandova, Petrography, XRF. 1. IntroductionBeveled Rim Bowls are handmade pottery vessels known for their rough, upturned rims, porous outer surfaces, and smoother inner surfaces shaped by damp hands. These bowls have been found in Mesopotamia, Iran, and parts of Pakistan, with numerous discoveries across various regions of the Iranian plateau. The Kaleh Kub site in eastern Iran is a significant prehistoric location where these bowls have been identified, dating from the 5th to the 2nd millennium BC. Archaeological layers from the 4th millennium BCE at Kaleh Kub contain various pottery types, including Beveled Rim Bowls, indicating potential local production.The site’s archaeological studies suggest that the importation of these potsherds is unlikely due to its distance from similar cultural sites, such as the Pishva Pottery Mound and Mahtoot Abad. The presence of numerous Beveled Rim Bowls strengthens the hypothesis of local craftsmanship. Stratigraphic evidence shows that these bowls are located beneath Bronze Age cultural deposits, with noticeable chronological gaps between the 5th and 4th millennia and those of the later Bronze Age cultures, as indicated by radiocarbon dating.Excavations at Kaleh Kub in 2018 revealed findings similar in pottery type and manufacturing methods to those from Mesopotamia and the Susa Plain, despite the geographic distance. This similarity underscores the significance of local production practices in the region. Overall, the evidence from Kaleh Kub highlights the cultural and historical context of Beveled Rim Bowls within the broader framework of ancient pottery in the Iranian plateau. 2. Sites Studied 2-1. Kaleh KubThe Kaleh Kub Aysk site is situated in the Sarayan District of South Khorasan Province, eastern Iran, at an elevation of 1,360 meters above sea level. The site is notable for the thickness of its cultural deposits, making it one of the few prehistoric sites in the province suitable for archaeological investigation (Fig. 1).2-2. Chogha MishChogha Mish is a prominent archaeological mound located in Khuzestan Province, flanked by the Dez and Karun rivers. The site features two ridges, with the taller ridge known as Tepe Boland, which rises about 27 meters above the plain. The shorter section, called the Terrace, stands approximately 9 to 10 meters high. Tepe Boland covers an area of 150 by 200 square meters, while the Terrace spans 300 by 400 square meters (Fig. 3).2-3. Abu FandovaAbu Fandova is located ca. 12 km south of Susa and consists of two main sections: a circular southern mound at about 80.75 meters elevation and a northern section with two shorter hills reaching approximately 75.30 meters. This site was surveyed by Robert McAdams in 1960-1961, who identified several cultural periods, including Middle Susa, Susa I, Susa II, Susa IV/D, and potentially the Kassite period (Adams, 1962).2-4. Tall-e IblisTall-e Iblis is located in the Bardsir Plain, about 80 km from Kerman, and covers over one hectare, measuring 120 by 100 meters. Initially described by Sir Aurel Stein in 1937, a photograph from 1932 shows that the site reached over 10 meters in height. In 1964, Joseph Caldwell identified six cultural periods at Tall-e Iblis, categorized based on pottery changes, labeled from 1 to 6 (Caldwell, 1967). 3. Laboratory MethodsA James Swift polarizing binocular microscope was employed for the microscopic analysis of the pottery samples. The magnification used in this study was set at 4x. For petrographic analysis, thin sections with a thickness of 30 microns were prepared for 25 pottery samples, which were subsequently examined using the James Swift polarizing microscope. All sections were prepared in the petrography laboratory of the Conservation and Restoration Research Institute. 4. Discussion, Petrographic StudyQuartz: Quartz is present in all examined samples and occurs in two forms: phenocrysts and polycrystalline, exhibiting angular margins within the clay matrix of the pottery. The abundance of quartz varies across the samples; in those from Kale Kub, it constitutes approximately 20-30% of the sample volume, while at Tall-e Iblis, it accounts for about 10%. In the two samples from Abu Fandova and Chogha Mish, quartz makes up 2-5% of the sample volume.Calcite: Calcite is observed in the samples in two forms: micrite (fine crystal) and sparite (coarse crystal). Given the geological structure of the three study areas, calcite is present in primary sources across all locations. The absence of calcite in some samples can be attributed to the high firing temperatures of the pottery. An important aspect of evaluating the firing temperature of pottery is the presence of calcite and carbonate-based minerals in the clay paste, either as temper or as separate inclusions. Calcite serves as a significant thermal indicator; it and other carbonate compounds decompose at temperatures around 800 degrees Celsius. Notably, calcite is absent in Sample 11, suggesting that its firing temperature exceeded 800 degrees Celsius. In contrast, calcite is observed as separate inclusions in the paste of other samples, indicating that their firing temperatures were below 800 degrees Celsius. In samples K-10, T-20, CH-21, and AB-22, the calcite present in the paste is predominantly of the coarse-crystalline or sparite type.4-2. Chemical StudyX-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis of pottery samples from the Kale Kub site and others revealed various oxide compounds, including sodium oxide (Na₂O), magnesium oxide (MgO), aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃), silicon oxide (SiO₂), and several others. The analysis included samples from Kale Kub, Tell Iblis, Chogha Mish, and Abu Fandova, as well as soil from Kale Kub, with results expressed in weight percent (wt%) of oxide compounds.The chemical analysis of Beveled Rim Bowls from Kale Kub showed a high concentration of silicon oxide, ranging from 54.7% to 64.4%. For pottery from Tell Iblis, the silicon oxide content was 58%, while it was 37% for Choghamish and 39.2% for Abu Fandova. The soil from Kale Kub contained 54.2% silicon oxide. 5. Discussion of the ResultsThe studied pottery primarily consists of quartz, identified through petrographic analyses. Quartz exists in two forms: single crystals, which is more common, and polycrystalline. Its varying content ranges from 3% to 10% in Kaleh Kub pottery, about 10% in Tell Iblis, and 2% to 5% in Chogha Mish and Abu Fandova. The angular edges of quartz fragments suggest they were added secondarily, indicating mining and grinding activities. The polycrystalline quartz points to granitic and metamorphic origins, implying the use of locally sourced soils. Some samples also show a coarse-grained texture, with calcite minerals present in both primary and secondary forms. 6. ConclusionIn comparative technological studies of ancient ceramics, chemical and mineralogical analyses provide crucial insights into the elemental compositions and minerals used in these artifacts. To trace clay origins, mineralogical comparisons with reference materials are essential. This study reveals that microscopic and chemical analyses, along with macroscopic examinations, show minimal variation in the Beveled Rim Bowls from the Kaleh Kub site in terms of composition and manufacturing techniques. Ancient potters likely employed similar methods and a limited range of raw materials. The potsherds from Tall-e Iblis, Chogha Mish, and Abu Fandova are entirely handmade and exhibit a similar manufacturing pattern, but their raw materials differ from those at Kaleh Kub. Thus, while the same technology and traditions were used, the origins of the potsherds suggest distinct regional affiliations.

The study of glassware during 1-6 centuries Hegmataneh and Bu-Ali Sina museums of Hamadan

Fereshteh sharifi; Mohammadebrahim zarei

Volume 12, Issue 2 , September 2020, , Pages 107-123

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.267992.142633

Abstract

Abstract The manufacture of glassware was one of the historical knowledge and technics of pre-Islamic era of Iran, that was continued during Islamic periods. This research is ... Read More

Classification, Typology and Chronology of Iron Age Pottery at the Site of Meydan in Hamadan

Mohammad Shabani; Mohammad ebrahim Zarei; Kazem Mollazadeh

Volume 15, Issue 1 , April 2023, , Pages 107-132

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2023.341348.143105

Abstract

Considering the lack of finds dating to the Median and Achaemenid periods at Hamadan, it is very important to discover evidence from this period in this city. In 2017, during a construction ... Read More Considering the lack of finds dating to the Median and Achaemenid periods at Hamadan, it is very important to discover evidence from this period in this city. In 2017, during a construction operation in Imam Khomeini Square in Hamadan near the site of Hegmataneh/Ecbatana, some historical-era were identified and an emergency excavation led by Mohammad Shabani began. Excavation in this area uncovered three levels: late Islamic, post-Achaemenid and Medo-Achaemenid. Level III, the lowest layer, according to the excavated ceramics, represents the establishment of Iron Age III, or the Median period, which has continued in the Achaemenid period. The pottery of this period, which is classified into Fine, Common/Medium, and Coarse types, appears in the form of subspecies of Buffware, Brownish-Buffware, Grayware, and Cooking ware utensils. The most common vessel forms are bowls and jars. Among the Common types, there are bowls with horizontal handles attached to the edge, as well as bowls with S-shaped edges and jars with clover-shaped spouts. The pottery of this period is remarkably similar to the pottery tradition of Median sites, especially sites such as Godin II, Nush-e Jan, Babajan I-II, and Yelfan Tepe. In some cases, vessels such as bowls with angled and boat-shaped bodies, small simple cups, and jars with triangular rims are also comparable to Achaemenid sites such as Pasargadae and Persepolis, and even Hasanlu III. Based on the comparison of pottery data of this period with sites such as Godin II, Babajan I, and II, the settlement of the third level of Meydan probably began between 7th and 6th centuries BCE and continued until the end of the Achaemenid period. The findings of this period are very important due to the great ambiguities and challenges related to the Median and Achaemenid settlement of Hamadan and also the lack of identification of layers and cultural materials dating to this period, even after a century of archaeological excavations in this city.

Reading the Archaeological Landscape through Contemporary Perception (a Case Study of Ozbeki Tepe)

Fatemeh Heidari; Homa Irani Behbahani; Bahman Firuzmandy Shirehjin

Volume 16, Issue 1 , February 2024, , Pages 109-130

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2021.315621.142968

Abstract

The living environment of today is the outcome of the relationships between the people who have lived in it and nature, from the time of the emergence of the human species on Earth ... Read More The living environment of today is the outcome of the relationships between the people who have lived in it and nature, from the time of the emergence of the human species on Earth to the present day. Human activities and the changes resulting from them in the context of place have taken place under the influence of beliefs, needs, and natural restraining and reinforcing factors, and with the change of generations and climate change have taken on various forms, the remnants of which we are witnessing today. The current landscape, which bears the marks of the past, is called the archaeological landscape, which is the result of the combination of objective and subjective elements. The objective part is the archaeological remains, but the subjective part includes the relationships between societies, culture, and its changes, which are often overlooked; however, this often-overlooked part has been very dynamic and has played a significant role in shaping the existing objectivity. This paper attempts to present a method for reading the archaeological landscape in the perception of the contemporary human being through the archaeological landscape phenomenology. The phenomenology of the landscape requires a comprehensive approach in which we pay close attention to "nature" and "culture”, to places with and without evidence of change or human activity. By considering the hierarchy of historical-cultural events and the objectivity that remains from them, as well as the connection of the people who lived there with the surrounding natural environment, this method provides a reading that, in addition to emphasizing the protection of ancient objective structures, preserves the continuity of these landscapes with their context and transforms the archaeological landscape from mere protection to a dynamic and interactive landscape with contemporary humans. Therefore, understanding the evolution of archaeological landscapes and their values is of fundamental importance for conservation and planning strategies. These landscapes possess inherent natural and cultural values, which necessitate the integration of objective and subjective aspects into methods for their conservation and presentation

Description, Classification and Typology of the Excavated Parthian Pottery from the Second Seasons of Qal’eh-i Yazdigird’s Excavations

Alireza Khosrowzadeh; Naser Nowruz Zadeh Chegini; Samer Nazari

Volume 12, Issue 1 , May 2020, , Pages 117-137

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2020.266797.142620

Abstract

Pottery -as the most prominent archaeological material- has a great role in reconstruction of regional and transregional interactions. So identification of the pottery assemblages of ... Read More Pottery -as the most prominent archaeological material- has a great role in reconstruction of regional and transregional interactions. So identification of the pottery assemblages of each cultural periods is very important. A few archaeological sites related to the Parthian period have been excavated in western Iran. Therefore, due to the lack of enough ceramic collections to identify and distinguish the pottery of this period, recognition of Parthian sites in western Iran encounter with some problems. So, it's necessary to present a precise dated collection of the Parthian pottery in order to have a better understanding of regional changes in this period. One of the most important sites in western Iran is Qal'eh-i Yazdigird, which has been excavated recently. Describing the pottery forms of this region, could be helpful in the regional pottery studies, as well as relative chronology in the Parthian life world. Pottery is the most prominent archaeological material which has a great role in reconstruction of regional and interregional interactions. So, identification of the pottery assemblages of each cultural period is very important to clarify their chronology and their technological significance. So far, few archaeological sites related to the Parthian period have been excavated in western Iran. Therefore, due to the lack of ceramic collections to identify and distinguish the pottery of this period, recognition of Parthian sites in western Iran encounters some problems. So, it is necessary to present a precise dated collection of the Parthian pottery in order to have a better understanding of their regional changes in this period. One of the most important sites in western Iran is Qal’eh-i Yazdigird, which has been excavated recently. Describing the pottery forms of this region could be helpful in the regional pottery studies, as well as for relative chronology in the Parthian world. According to the excavated pottery, three types have been reported, including clinky, glazed and common wares. Comparative studies on the pottery suggest most of them have been made locally, but some are probably from other sites and show cultural-commercial relationships between this site and other contemporary settlements during the Parthian. On the basis of forms and technical characteristics, it seems that the pottery belonging to the late Parthian period can be classified into two types of ordinary pottery and semi-precise ceramics. In addition to the pottery, other archaeological findings, such as building units, are very useful in our study to reconstruct the chronology of site.

Restoration of Folk Murals of Shia’s Religion in Iran: The Influences of the Expectations of their Public Audiences and the Preference of the Values of these Paintings on the Process of Reconstruction

reihaneh ghasemabadi; Hossein Ahmadi

Volume 13, Issue 4 , September 2022, , Pages 117-140

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2021.308101.142915

Abstract

Murals of Shia’s history from the late Safavid period and its culmination from the Qajar period onwards as the historical religious culture of the public in religious historical ... Read More Murals of Shia’s history from the late Safavid period and its culmination from the Qajar period onwards as the historical religious culture of the public in religious historical sites to this day by continuity of use, cause the emergence of a special attitude to the outstanding features of these paintings and the expectations of their general audience in the restoration. The majority of the murals of such buildings were based on Shiite religion traditions. Overall, the combination of a number of factors namely the significance of the values that have made a connection with the target audience of the heritages in use and the focus on their perception in the last decades, led to this study to pursue this goal to investigate the effects of the characteristics of folk-art paintings in Iran and the needs of their audiences, on their perception of the narrative during the reconstruction. This research has been done due to the development of value-based approaches in the restoration’s contemporary theory at the international level and the importance of the sociological issue of audiences, and the lack of academic research in this field in Iran. This article used purposeful and semi-structured interview techniques with 13 experts and library studies in a qualitative method and performed the analysis with the Colaizzi phenomenological approach by categorizing the interviews. The findings led to the achievement of 6 auxiliary categories and 11 subcategories, that auxiliary categories as factors affecting the reconstruction of the loss of religious-narrative folk murals based on value preference and the expectations of their general audience are:1)the place of special values of folk-art paintings of Shia’s history, 2)factors affecting the perception of public audiences 3)factors affecting the mental retelling of public audiences 4)definition of target audiences(stakeholders),5)the expectations of the public audience from reading the images of historical-religious narratives, and 6)the expectations of the public audience from the restoration and reconstruction of the paintings;

The Study of Chemical Composition of Persian Glass Vessels of the Early Islamic Centuries (10th -11th centuries AD) by micro-PIXE Case Study: Islamic Collection in Iran National Museum

navid salehvand; arman shishegar; bahman firuzmandi shirejini; Davoud AghaAligol

Volume 12, Issue 2 , September 2020, , Pages 125-146

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.243957.142489

Abstract

Elemental analysis and chemical composition of ancient glasses are widely used to determine the glass type, technique and raw materials used in their production and recipes. The results ... Read More

Analytical Study of the Cenotaph Burial Tradition in Eastern Iran: Case Study of the Sites of Shahr-i Sokhta, Shahdad (Khabis), and Khunaman

Hassan Basafa; Mohammad Sadegh Davari; Nasir Eskandari

Volume 17, Issue 1 , June 2025, , Pages 129-144

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2023.342386.143111

Abstract

AbstractUnderstanding burial methods and interpreting how grave goods reflect the culture and beliefs about the afterlife, can give insight into past customs, religious beliefs, as ... Read More AbstractUnderstanding burial methods and interpreting how grave goods reflect the culture and beliefs about the afterlife, can give insight into past customs, religious beliefs, as well as social structures and complexities. With the emergence of urban centers and their expansion during the Early and Middle Bronze Ages, extensive trade relations and unique cultural interactions formed between the most important cultural hubs of the Iranian Plateau and Central Asia. This continued into the Late Bronze Age with the emergence of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC)/Greater Khorasan Culture (GKC). During this period, specific burial traditions developed, the most important of which is the cenotaph. Understanding the general origin of cenotaphs is one of the main goals of the present research. These are graves that lack the skeletal remains of the deceased and likely served a memorial function. The formation of this tradition has been reported from the Early Bronze Age in southeastern Iran, in the cemeteries of Shahr-i Sokhta, Shahdad, and Khunaman. In later periods, namely the Middle and Late Bronze Ages, it emerges as a widespread phenomenon in the eastern half of Iran and Central Asia. In this regard, the main research question is the “why” and “how” of this phenomenon and the mechanisms of its spread. The volume and number of cenotaphs excavated in numerous cultural regions and their provided chronologies help in analyzing the topic. The general hypothesis is based on the logic that, considering the quantitative and chronological analysis of the statistical population, the main origin of this tradition or burial method is attributed to the southeastern region of Iran, specifically the Early Bronze Age and the site of Shahr-i Sokhta in Sistan. This tradition then became prevalent in the Middle Bronze Age in the Khunaman and Shahdad cemeteries of Kerman and, finally, in line with cultural communications, the movement of people and ideas through the mechanisms of communication networks, indirect trade, and nomadic craftspeople, it spread widely in the regions of Central Asia during the Late Bronze Age.Keywords: Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex/Greater Khorasan, Shahr-i Sokhta, Shahdad, Burial Traditions, Cenotaph. 1. IntroductionUnderstanding burial practices is crucial for deciphering the intangible dimensions of prehistoric cultures, reflecting the thoughts and socio-cultural structures of human societies. Graves hold significant archaeological, sociological, and anthropological information, providing valuable insights into the non-material aspects of past cultures. While archaeologists cannot fully reconstruct all facets and ideologies of human societies based solely on burial studies, recognizing burial methods and interpreting grave goods significantly illuminates the importance of interment, philosophical concepts regarding the afterlife, customs, religious beliefs, and social structures and complexities. The emergence of a novel type of grave lacking human remains the cenotaph represents a prevalent burial method in the Middle Asian region (including eastern Iran, Central Asia, Pakistan, Balochistan, the Makran region, and the coasts of the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman). These are tombs without bodies, likely serving a memorial function and containing only grave goods. Known examples of cenotaphs in the southeast date back to the Early Bronze Age from Shahr-i Sokhta, Shahdad, and Khunaman. In northeastern Iran and Central Asia, they are reported in the Late Bronze Age and are considered characteristic of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC)/Greater Khorasan Culture (GKC). However, understanding the origins of the human communities associated with this culture and its characteristics remains a key unanswered question. Due to insufficient information and understanding of this burial tradition, and the lack of similar examples during the excavation of cemeteries like Khunaman and Shahdad, early excavators attributed the absence of skeletal remains to post-depositional processes such as water erosion from seasonal streams, soil salinity, and wind erosion. Diffusionist perspectives often attribute the origin of eastern Iranian cenotaphs to the BMAC/GKC, although their roots might be found in southeastern Iran during the Early Bronze Age. 2. Materials and MethodsThe main objectives of the present research are to gain a general understanding of the origin of cenotaphs discovered in southeastern Iran during the Early to Middle Bronze Age, and subsequently their distribution across a wide area of eastern Iran, Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, the coasts of the Persian Gulf, and the Makran region during the Late Bronze Age. Today, this burial tradition is recognized as part of the burial customs of Central Asia and Khorasan, particularly within the BMAC/GKC. 3. DataThe study of cenotaphs and their origins in the southern region is a relatively new topic, with the statistical population comprising cenotaphs unearthed from the excavations of Shahr-i Sokhta, Shahdad, and Khunaman. At Shahr-i Sokhta, six Early Bronze Age cenotaphs have been identified and analyzed as such by excavators (Seyed-Sajjadi, 2007: 122). The Shahdad cemetery was excavated over seven seasons between 1966-1976 CE by Ali Hakemi, followed by an additional season under Mir Abedin Kaboli in 1977 CE (see Eskandari, 2019: 64). According to Hakemi’s report, a total of 383 graves were excavated at Shahdad, the majority of which lacked skeletal remains, and many others contained only partial skeletal remains (Hakemi, 1997). In the Khunaman cemetery of Kerman, artifacts were discovered around the 1950s CE during earthmoving operations for the construction of a residence. Some of these artifacts were transferred to the British Museum, and a number are currently held in the Kerman Regional Museum. Subsequently, in the 1950s and 1960s CE, researchers’ attention was drawn back to the Khunaman cemetery, where John Curtis, after re-examining the absence of skeletal remains in the graves, did not consider it a significant issue, attributing the lack to post-depositional processes caused by natural factors, similar to the interpretation at Shahdad (Curtis, 1988). It is worth noting that related studies in northeastern Iran have also made attempts to study and determine the origins of cenotaphs (Iravani and Tahamsebi, 2018; Basafa, 2016). 4. DiscussionThe discussion and analysis regarding the origin of cenotaphs and ideological issues indicate that this burial tradition without skeletal remains, likely with a memorial function, became prevalent in vast areas of eastern Iran, the Indus Valley, and Central Asia in the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE, coinciding with the Late Bronze Age and the BMAC/GKC. Although some attribute its origin to this culture and believe it spread to other regions, studies show that cenotaphs were first identified in southeastern Iran at the Shahdad site, dating back to the Early and Middle Bronze Ages. At that time, a lack of sufficient knowledge led excavators to attribute the absence of skeletal remains to natural factors such as floods and erosion.Similar findings are observed in Khunaman, Kerman, indicating cultural homogeneity. In addition to southeastern Iran, pit-grave cenotaphs related to the Early and Middle Bronze Ages have also been discovered at Shahr-i Sokhta in Sistan. In Central Asia, at sites like Gonur Depe and Ulug Depe, cenotaphs with catacomb, cist, and pit-grave structures with specific Late Bronze Age architecture have been found. In Khorasan and the northeast, examples of simple and burnt pit-grave cenotaphs have also been identified at sites such as Tepe Hissar and Shahrak-e Firozeh.The abundance of cenotaphs at Shahdad is significantly higher than in other regions, and their chronology, dating from 3100 to 1900 BCE, suggests deep roots of this tradition in southeastern Iran. Challenges related to the lack of proper understanding of the cenotaph burial pattern and insufficient reporting in early excavations at Shahdad and Khunaman are also evident.Considering the extensive Bronze Age trade connections between Central Asian urban centers and the hubs of Shahdad and Shahr-i Sokhta, cultural similarities, including the cenotaph burial method, have led to hypotheses regarding migration or cultural exchange. The importance of cenotaphs increases in the Late Bronze Age in the northeast and Central Asia, but their prevalence in Central Asian sites such as Gonur Depe is relatively low. This, considering the chronology, suggests that southeastern Iran was likely the primary origin of this phenomenon. The discovery of cenotaphs at Gonur Depe in Turkmenistan, a major center of the BMAC, shows a close connection with Shahdad in southeastern Iran, with the difference that Gonur Depe examples are limited to the Late Bronze Age, while those at Shahdad date back to the Early and Middle Bronze Ages.From an ideological perspective, it appears that new rituals and beliefs emerged in the Late Bronze Age. Sarianidi associates the burials of Gonur Depe with Zoroastrian ideas, considering Zoroastrian doctrines regarding the non-pollution of earth and specific mortuary practices. Innovations in the structure of cenotaphs are also observed in the Late Bronze Age; for instance, while Shahdad features pit-grave structures, Gonur Depe exhibits cist and catacomb cenotaphs, indicating the evolution of this burial tradition based on the customs and ideologies of different Central Asian societies. 5. ConclusionThe cenotaph burial practice, prevalent across eastern Iran, Central Asia, and the Indus Valley within the BMAC/GKC sphere during the Late Bronze Age, has been investigated for its origins based on excavated numbers, chronologies, and grave structures. This study reveals the cenotaph burial tradition as indigenous to southeastern Iran, notably at Shahr-i Sokhta (Early Bronze Age) and the Khunaman and Shahdad cemeteries (Early and Middle Bronze Ages). Through various, not fully understood mechanisms including migration, political alliances, mobile specialists, and the transmission of beliefs and ideologies via networks this tradition widely diffused into BMAC-influenced regions during the Late Bronze Age. Over time, it integrated with local customs and structures, culminating in innovative burial forms like cist and catacomb cenotaphs in Turkmenistan, particularly at Gonur Depe. Challenging the traditionally unidirectional view of BMAC/GKC interactions, recent archaeological studies in eastern Iran suggest a re-evaluation, proposing potential influences from the Iranian plateau towards Central Asia during the Late Bronze Age. Previous research on BMAC/GKC cultural connections focused on iconography and homogeneous prestige goods from burial contexts. This research infers the indigenous origin of the cenotaph burial culture throughout the Bronze Age phases in southeastern Iran, specifically at Shahr-i Sokhta and prominently at Shahdad. Through diffusion and communication, encompassing both material (burial structures) and spiritual (customs and ideologies) aspects, this practice influenced neighboring regions, notably Central Asia and areas under BMAC influence in eastern Iran and Central Asia. This highlights a potentially more complex and multi-directional interaction between these cultural spheres than previously assumed.

A Typological Investigation of Ground Stone from Tol-e Chega Sofla, a Middle Susiana Period

Abdulwahab Dahdouh; Abbas Moghaddam; Nasir Eskandari

Volume 16, Issue 1 , February 2024, , Pages 131-154

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2023.355732.143185

Abstract

The Middle Susiana period in southwestern Iran has several characteristics, the most important of which are the development of agriculture and animal husbandry alongside growing numbers ... Read More

Esfanjerd, A Buried Ancient City in the Majumerd Dunes, Yazd Province

Mohamad Hossein Azizi Kharanaghi; Samira Abedi; Seyyed Jalal Hashemi Majomerd

Volume 15, Issue 1 , April 2023, , Pages 133-160

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2023.353049.143174

Abstract

The arid desert climate of Yazd province, with its endless flowing sand dunes, has led to the creation of special conditions for human settlements in this part of Iran. Throughout history, ... Read More

An Historical and Archaeological Approach to the Islamic Site of Anda-jin

mostafa rezaei; maryam mohammadi

Volume 12, Issue 1 , May 2020, , Pages 139-159

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2020.261673.142595

Abstract

The Islamic site of Anda-jin is one of the most prominent and extensive sites from the Islamic period of Hamadan-Bahar plain, located 8 kilometers north of Hamadan in the fertile Quraq ... Read More

A Typology of Genre of Luristan Ware, Based on New Archaeological Survays in Luristan

Alireza goudarzi

Volume 13, Issue 4 , September 2022, , Pages 141-160

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.282333.142723

Abstract

The genre of Luristan ware, which was first emerged in the early first millennium BC, was distributed in the Pish-Koh region. The typology of this ware was not clear because of the ... Read More

Comparative analysis of Tools and Archeological Textiles of the Bronze Age (Shahr-i Sokhta) and today

Haleh Helali Esfahani; Seyed Mansour Seyed Sajjadi

Volume 17, Issue 1 , June 2025, , Pages 145-172

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2024.360834.143216

Abstract

AbstractShahr-i Sokhta occupies a distinctive and significant position among the archaeological sites of the third millennium BCE on the Iranian Plateau due to the richness and diversity ... Read More AbstractShahr-i Sokhta occupies a distinctive and significant position among the archaeological sites of the third millennium BCE on the Iranian Plateau due to the richness and diversity of its cultural materials. The extensive array of artifacts recovered from the site provides valuable resources for investigating the behaviors, worldviews, and technological capabilities of humans during a formative historical period particularly in relation to challenges still present in contemporary industry, such as textile production. A key avenue for exploring this cultural complexity lies in the study of textiles recovered from the site. By analyzing the types of fibers and weaving techniques employed, as well as the associated tools used in textile production, researchers can gain insight into the innovative practices and material culture of the inhabitants. These artifacts narrate the ingenuity and functional artistry of the community, revealing how tools were utilized and how textiles were crafted. This study employs a descriptive-comparative methodology to examine the most representative examples of woven textiles, using morphological imaging, tables, and diagrams. These samples are comparatively analyzed in terms of their structure, function, and congruence with the tools found at the site. Moreover, the study draws parallels with contemporary analogues, aiming to reconstruct and illustrate aspects of everyday life in the Bronze Age. Through this approach, the research seeks to revive an understanding of Shahr-i Sokhta’s cultural environment and to highlight the role of its inhabitants as artist-craftsmen within the broader context of early textile industry development.Keywords: Shahr-i- Sokhta, Archaeological Textiles, Weaving Tools, Bronze Age, Textile Heritage. 1. IntroductionUndoubtedly, Sistan was one of the first parts of Iran that played an important role in the formation of ancient civilizations. Near the end of the Helmand River, there are low but wide hills called Shahr-i Sokhta, which is one of the largest urban centers in ancient Iran (Seyyed Sajjadi 2018: 322). The study of cultural materials related to textiles and weaving, while important to understanding this site, has not previously been conducted.The archaeological site of Shahr-i Sokhta is situated adjacent to an ancient delta, which today is heavily covered by sand, rendering its original features difficult to discern. Additionally, due to prevailing west-to-east wind patterns, the site has experienced significant erosion, particularly in its western section. Continuous exposure to wind currents has led to a decrease in elevation on the western side, while the eastern portion retains a comparatively higher elevation. The erosion has also caused sharp, vertical cuts along the walls of the mound, shaped primarily by water action.The mounds of Shahr-i Sokhta extend in a generally north-south orientation, with an approximate length of 2,220 meters and a width of around 1,090 meters (Biscione et al., 1977, p. 104). Cultural and archaeological remains are distributed across an area of roughly 151 hectares, making it the largest known prehistoric settlement in the eastern Iranian Plateau. Over the 4,000 years since its abandonment, the site has been significantly altered by natural erosive forces, such as the strong Sistan winds and seasonal rainfall. 2. DiscussionShahr-i Sokhta represents not only one of the most prominent cities of the Iranian Plateau but also serves as a vast laboratory within a compact desert environment. The study of cultural materials at the site extends beyond traditional archaeological inquiries. Through the examination of diverse artifacts, scholars can trace the development of multiple fields of knowledge and technology on the plateau. These include, but are not limited to: archaeology, sociology, trade and international exchange, the history of religion, settlement and urbanization, architecture, traditional arts and crafts, writing systems, medicine and its allied sciences, zoology, nutrition, agriculture, animal husbandry, entomology, botany, geology, metallurgy, ceramics, jewelry-making, weaving, and woodworking.The city can be divided into three main sectors and three subsidiary zones: (1) a central core encompassing both the eastern and central residential quarters and associated monuments; (2) a northwestern industrial zone; and (3) a southern cemetery area (Biscione et al., 1974, p. 104).The architectural remains of the residential sector reveal an organized spatial layout, with buildings and housing units separated by alleys and streets. Construction materials include adobe, clay, wood, and matting. Residential units typically consist of six to ten rooms, outfitted with doors, thresholds, stairways, floors, ceilings, ovens, and in some instances, animal mangers.A wide variety of portable objects have been recovered from the site. In addition to ceramic vessels, noteworthy finds include human and animal figurines fashioned from clay and stone, wooden and woven artifacts, textile tools, fragments of cloth and rope, seals and seal impressions, personal ornaments, and utilitarian tools. Among the more distinguished items are marble vessels, stone handles, and polished stones of Asian origin. Many decorative objects were crafted from imported semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli, agate, and turquoise sourced from distant mining regions and transported to Shahr-i Sokhta. These materials, particularly lapis lazuli, were cut and shaped by local artisans and subsequently exported to distant lands, including regions beyond the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia, as part of long-distance trade networks.Stone materials such as marble, basalt, and limestone were used to manufacture tools, beads, and various types of vessels. A significant number of seals and seal impressions made from diverse materials have been uncovered, indicating their administrative and official functions. Among the most important discoveries are two clay tablets: one inscribed with early Elamite script and the other marked with a series of numerical figures and a seal impression (Sajjadi and Moradi, 2022, pp. 101–109).Today, the study and analysis of ancient artifacts is a crucial means of reconstructing past lifeways and understanding key socio-economic practices of earlier periods. One such area of investigation is the domestication and breeding of various animal species for the purpose of acquiring fibers such as down, wool, and hair for textile production (Strand, 2010b). As the corpus of documented ancient artifacts grows, so too does the body of historical, artistic, and cultural knowledge available to archaeologists, historians, and specialists across disciplines. Within this broader framework, the study of textiles and associated weaving tools from Shahr-i Sokhta constitutes a particularly significant area of inquiry, owing to the substantial number of preserved textile fragments found at the site.To date, approximately 350 textile fragments from Shahr-i Sokhta have been cataloged as part of conservation and restoration efforts (Helali Esfahani, 2010). Alongside these, a number of wooden weaving implements have also been recovered. These tools are essential for understanding the techniques of textile production at the site. Notably, some of the weaving patterns observed in these fragments appear to correspond to techniques recognizable in modern textile practices, offering valuable comparative opportunities (Costantini et al., 2007 [1386]: 339–348). This article focuses specifically on the abundance and diversity of textile-related materials uncovered at Shahr-i Sokhta, which position the site as a uniquely rich source of prehistoric textile evidence.All fabric samples examined in this study have undergone technical analyses of their fibers, which were categorized into several primary and secondary groups. Key criteria included the type of fiber, spinning technique, and fiber color. In terms of weaving analysis, the classification was based on the structural characteristics of the weave and evidence for intended use (Helali Esfahani, 2009). The central aim of this research is to present aspects of daily life in Shahr-i Sokhta during the third millennium BCE through a detailed examination of fabric types and the tools used in their production.Previous studies on Shahr-i Sokhta’s textiles have investigated both the variety and abundance of fiber types. For instance, Irene Good has examined fiber analysis in order to reconstruct patterns of animal domestication and biodiversity relevant to textile use (Good, 1999). Similarly, Lorenzo Costantini and colleagues have explored warp types, spinning stages, and several weaving patterns evident in the recovered materials (Costantini et al., 2007 [1386]: 339–340).This article is the outcome of fieldwork conducted by the author, who served as site supervisor for three excavation seasons at Shahr-i Sokhta. During these campaigns, fiber types, spinning methods, and physical properties of the approximately 350 preserved fabric fragments were systematically documented and analyzed. It is important to note that no comprehensive research in Iran has yet matched prehistoric textile tools and fabrics from Shahr-i Sokhta with their modern analogues. As such, this article represents the first systematic attempt in Iranian archaeology to establish such correlations. 3. ConclusionWhile similar analyses have been conducted at other archaeological sites internationally often focusing on tool typologies and their temporal contexts these studies have generally treated tools and fabrics in isolation, without integrating them into a comparative analysis with modern textile production (Olofsson et al., 2015). No analogous study exists, either in traditional or industrial textile contexts, that explicitly traces the technological continuity between prehistoric weaving practices and contemporary textile methods. Therefore, this research offers a novel approach, combining archaeological data with comparative textile studies to reconstruct the technological and cultural significance of textile production in Shahr-i Sokhta.

Chemical study of Bronze Age and Iron Age potteries of Sagzabad Tepe

Rozıta Salehı nezamı; Hassan Fazeli nashli; omid oudbashi

Volume 12, Issue 2 , September 2020, , Pages 147-164

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2020.272487.142666

Abstract

Pottery is one of the cultural evidences that its developments in different times are important archaeological indicators. Pottery can be viewed from different aspects. Appearance features ... Read More

A Preliminary Study of Sasanian Bullae Held in the Shahrood Museum

AbbasAli Rezaeinia

Volume 16, Issue 1 , February 2024, , Pages 155-183

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2024.359374.143208

Abstract

The Shahrood Museum holds 32 Sasanian clay bullae that were confiscated in 2005. These bullae hold invaluable information, contributing substantially to our understanding of Sasanian ... Read More

A Survey on Motifs and Inscriptions of Sassanid Seals from Buali Museum

Fariba Sharifian; Katayoun Fekripour; Azadeh Heidarpour

Volume 12, Issue 1 , May 2020, , Pages 161-178

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2020.260783.142591

Abstract

Seals are one of the most important archaeological findings that provide reliable information about geographical names and job positions of the past. During Sasanian period seals were ... Read More

Recognition of Sassanid Takht-i-Nishin (Throne Room) in the Middle of Ardeshir Khorra City; A Proposition of a Temple of Anahita and Fire Chartaqi in the Continuation of Previous Traditions

Hamed Mohammadpour; Elham ANDAROODI; Mohammad Hasan Talebian

Volume 13, Issue 4 , September 2022, , Pages 161-187

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2020.282253.142722

Abstract

In the middle of the city of Ardeshir Khoreh (the city of Gur), there is a rectangular tower, a circular structures, as well as a fort and a circular moat, which are considered to be ... Read More In the middle of the city of Ardeshir Khoreh (the city of Gur), there is a rectangular tower, a circular structures, as well as a fort and a circular moat, which are considered to be the most prominent structures of this city; But in the northeastern part of the city of Ardeshir Khoreh, a place called "Takht-i-Nishin" (throne room) remains in the form of a platform of heavy dressed stone and a hollow or pit in the form of a reservoir, which has been studied by different scholars from the early centuries of Islam until now. However, there are still differing views on this complex; For example, the four-arched structure located on a flat platform is called by the names of Atashgah, Qasr, Tarbal, Atashkadeh, Dekan, Atashkhaneh, Kooshak, Irankiakhareh, Ivan, Dekeh, Irangardeh, palace, mansion, tower, house, and ziggurat. In addition, the reservoir next to the platform is also called Cheshmeh, Ghadir, Hoz Ab (water pool), AbAnbar (water reservoir) and Abnama (fountain). Therefore, attributing various names to this complex indicates the ambiguity in the nature of the constructions. The demolition the complex’s most buildings and the coverage of its remains bu rubbles over time, has caused less attention to this building in various documents and sources. Therefore, by interpreting the different views that exist around the structures of this building, this study aims to recognize the function of the Takht-i-Nishin complex, how the spaces are related and why it was built in the middle of the city of Ardeshir Khoreh. In order to achieve this goal, the interpretive-historical method have been used and library resources such as archaeological reports and historical documents were studied. Also, more accurate and up-to-date information was obtained through field visits and surveys, which paved the way for research. Then, by physical and spatial analysis of similar buildings such as the Anahita temple in Bishapour, a comparative comparison of the combination of four arched structure or Chartaqi and the water basin in the middle of Ardeshir Khoreh city has been conducted. As a result, the research findings show that the building on the platform is in the form of a cruciform hall with a four arched pattern and is located in an adjacent bed overlooking the man-made pond in the middle of the city of Ardeshir Khoreh. According to Ibn Balkhi, and the remains of debris visible on the ground, there was probably a similar quadrangle in front of the second basin or behind the available one. Hence, these Chartaqi, as a continuous fireplace connected to the water basin, have created a structure that shows a common pattern in the formation of Sassanid period religious collections related to water and sacred fire. The findings indicate that it can be a place of worship for the goddess Anahita in a ritual complex by being located next to the holy water pool and fire place

Reflection of Zaydi Shia Beliefs on Alid Coins of Tabaristan

Fatemeh Gholizadeh; Hasan Karimian; Javad Neyestani

Volume 15, Issue 1 , April 2023, , Pages 161-182

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2021.293180.142809

Abstract

The migration of Alid’s Sadat to Tabaristan and Daylam that was the result of pressure of the Abbasid caliphs, along with the subsequent uprising of Yahya bin Abdullah in Daylam ... Read More

Analytical and Survey of Mythological animal images origin over the Sasanin Art period (With Emphasis on Rock Relief and filet and Seal )

nafiseh sedaghat; gholamali hatam; aliasghar mirfatah; reza shabanisamghabadi

Volume 12, Issue 2 , September 2020, , Pages 165-186

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2020.258200.142572

Abstract

During the Sassanid period, countless artworks have been created by artists that include types of motifs The study of animal designs two forms 1- Real animals 2- Mythical and mixed ... Read More

Naram-Sin’s Divinity: A Re-examination

Hossein Badamchi; Tavakoli Tavakoli

Volume 17, Issue 1 , June 2025, , Pages 173-198

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2024.379595.143280

Abstract

AbstractDivine kingship served as a means of asserting legitimacy in the Ancient Near East, where rulers not only claimed divine descent or representation but also presented themselves ... Read More AbstractDivine kingship served as a means of asserting legitimacy in the Ancient Near East, where rulers not only claimed divine descent or representation but also presented themselves as gods. Historical evidence suggests that the first formal instance of divine kingship appeared during the Old Akkadian period, with Naram-Sin, who reigned from approximately 2261 to 2206 BCE. This era, known as the Sargonic or Old Akkadian period, marked the initial attempt at political unification in ancient Mesopotamia and established a lasting tradition of kingship. As a result, divine kingship holds particular significance when studying the political traditions of that time. Naram-Sin’s role as the pioneer of this ideology is especially intriguing, as it sparked a trend, albeit a superficial one, of divine kingship in the ancient Near East. Although research on Naram-Sin’s divinity is limited, with scholars often focusing on later traditions, this study aims to explore Naram-Sin’s role as the originator of this tradition. The paper will examine various aspects of divine kingship during the Old Akkadian period, including the political processes that led Naram-Sin to claim divinity, the nature of his divine status, his objectives, the origins and causes behind his actions, and the lasting impact he had on Mesopotamian political tradition.Keywords: Naram-Sin, Akkad, Divine Kingship, Mesopotamia, Legitimacy. 1. IntroductionNaram-Sin was a prominent Akkadian king who reigned during the 23rd century BCE, known for his military conquests and efforts to solidify the Akkadian Empire’s dominance in Mesopotamia. As the grandson of Sargon of Akkad, his reign marked the empire’s peak, both territorially and culturally. Naram-Sin’s most notable achievement was his self-deification, a move unprecedented for Mesopotamian rulers, as he declared himself a god-king, symbolized by the horned crown he wore in his depictions. This act of deification not only elevated his status above other kings but also marked a profound shift in the relationship between the divine and the mortal in Mesopotamian culture. His victory stele, the “Stele of Naram-Sin,” celebrates his triumph over the Lullubi people and serves as a testament to his military prowess and divine status. The stele’s imagery, which depicts Naram-Sin ascending a mountain and trampling his enemies underfoot, reinforces his godlike stature and the idea of his divine right to rule.Despite his successes, his reign is also associated with later Mesopotamian traditions of divine retribution, as subsequent generations viewed the empire’s eventual decline as a result of his hubris. This perception of divine retribution was reflected in later Mesopotamian literature and religious thought, where Naram-Sin’s actions were often cited as a cautionary tale against the dangers of excessive pride and overreach. Naram-Sin’s legacy is a complex blend of military triumph, religious innovation, and the lasting impact on Mesopotamian culture and history. 2. DiscussionNaram-Sin’s decision to deify himself was driven by a combination of political, religious, military, and cultural motivations. These motivations can be categorized into the following areas:1. Political Legitimacy and Authority. Consolidation of Power: By declaring himself a god, Naram-Sin sought to elevate his status above all other rulers and reinforce his absolute Authority. In a hierarchical society where divine favor was essential for kingship, self-deification was a way to legitimize his rule and ensure that his power was seen as divinely sanctioned. Supremacy over Religious Institutions: Traditional religious Authorities, such as priests and temple elites, held significant power in Mesopotamian society. By becoming a god, Naram-Sin could assert control over these institutions, reducing their influence and centralizing power within his own hands.2. Religious and Cultural Innovation. Breaking Tradition: Naram-Sin’s self-deification represented a significant departure from Mesopotamian religious tradition, where kings were seen as chosen by the gods but not divine themselves. This act positioned him as a transformative figure, one who redefined the relationship between the divine and the earthly. Symbol of a New Era: The Akkadian Empire under Naram-Sin was at its zenith, and his self-deification symbolized the empire’s unprecedented power and reach. It was a cultural statement that reflected the empire’s dominance and the king’s role as the embodiment of Akkadian supremacy.3. Military Prowess and Propaganda. Projection of Invincibility: Naram-Sin’s military victories, especially his conquest of the Lullubi, were celebrated as evidence of his divine favor. By declaring himself a god, he reinforced the idea that his successes were not just the result of human skill but were preordained by the divine, making him seem invincible. Discouraging Rebellion: A divine king would be seen as unchallengeable, both by external enemies and by potential internal dissenters. The aura of divinity served as a psychological tool to maintain order and discourage opposition to his rule.4. Personal Ambition and Legacy. Desire for Eternal Fame: By becoming a god, Naram-Sin ensured that his name and achievements would be remembered for eternity. This move was not just about ruling in the present but also about securing a lasting legacy, as his divine status would place him among the pantheon of gods worshipped for generations. Precedent Setting: Naram-Sin’s self-deification set a precedent for future rulers, both within Mesopotamia and beyond, as an example of the extent to which a king could elevate himself. It reflected his ambition to be seen not just as a great king, but as a figure of cosmic significance.5. Response to Challenges. Crisis Management: Some scholars suggest that Naram-Sin’s self-deification might have been a response to crises, such as natural disasters or military threats, that could have been interpreted as signs of divine displeasure. By becoming a god, he could claim direct control over these forces, reassuring his people and maintaining his rule during difficult times.The present paper argues that Naram-Sin’s deification was a multifaceted strategy that served to reinforce his power, innovate culturally, project military dominance, and secure his legacy as a ruler of unparalleled stature in Mesopotamian history. His bold move to declare himself a god not only solidified his reign but also set a template for future rulers who sought to merge divine authority with earthly power. 3. ConclusionThe paper also contends that Naram-Sin was likely the first Mesopotamian king to officially declare himself a god during his lifetime, marking a major departure from the traditional roles of kingship in the region. Prior to Naram-Sin, Mesopotamian rulers were typically viewed as individuals who were divinely chosen or favored by the gods, serving as intermediaries between the gods and the people. These kings were believed to possess a special connection to the divine, often performing religious duties and ensuring the favor of the gods for their city-states or empires. However, they were not considered deities themselves.Naram-Sin’s decision to elevate himself to the status of a god was a bold and unprecedented move that challenged these established norms. By proclaiming himself a god, Naram-Sin was asserting that his authority was not merely granted by the gods but was inherent in his very being. This self-deification was symbolized in various ways, most notably by his adoption of the horned crown, a symbol traditionally reserved for deities in Mesopotamian iconography. This crown, often depicted in his statues and reliefs, signified his divine status and set him apart from all previous rulers. This innovation in kingship had far-reaching implications for the future of Mesopotamian and broader Near Eastern political traditions. Naram-Sin’s self-deification set a precedent for later rulers, who saw the potential benefits of adopting divine status as a means of legitimizing and strengthening their rule. While not all subsequent kings followed in his footsteps, his example remained a powerful symbol of the intersection between divine and royal authority in the ancient world.

A Survey of Three new finding of Sassanids Silver Vessels from Mazandaran

Mehdi Abedini Araghi; Abdul Reza Mohajeri Nejad; Mohammad Mortezaei

Volume 12, Issue 1 , May 2020, , Pages 179-198

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2020.266204.142618

Abstract

The silverware works of the Sassanid period have their own significance not only for their technological components but also because their archaeological distribution reveals how this ... Read More

Volume 17 (2025)

Volume 16 (2024)

Volume 15 (2023)

Volume 14 (2022)

Volume 13 (2021)

Volume 12 (2020)

Volume 11 (2019)

Volume 10 (2018)

Volume 9 (2017)

Volume 8 (2016)

Volume 7 (2015)

Volume 6 (2014)

Volume 5 (2013)

Volume 4 (2012)

Volume 3 (2011)

Volume 1 (2009)

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