Document Type : Research Paper
Authors
1 Ph.D Candidate in Archaeology, Department of Archaeology, SR.C, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.
2 Professor, Department of Archeology, Faculty of Literature and Human Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran (Corresponding Author).
3 Assistant Professor, Department of Archaeology, Sh.C, Islamic Azad University, Shoushtar, Iran.
Abstract
Abstract
Throughout ancient periods, geographical conditions and natural factors have had a significant impact on the formation, prosperity, decline, and settlement patterns of ancient sites. This article examines the settlement of human groups in the northwestern part of the Central Plateau (Qazvin) and their settlement patterns from the beginning of the Late Neolithic period to the end of the Chalcolithic period, in light of geomorphological and altitudinal characteristics, drainage networks, and climatic changes. The results show that natural conditions have had a significant impact on the settlement pattern of ancient sites in the Qazvin sub-basin, as well as settlement discontinuities and continuities.
Keywords: Niche Construction, Settlement Pattern, Central Iranian Plateau, Qazvin sub-basin.
1. Introduction
The relationship between culture and the natural environment has been one of the oldest debates in archaeology and anthropology, consistently providing a source of discussion (Meggers, 1954). By observing the relationship between humans and the environment from the past to the present, it can be seen that this relationship has always been two-way. Although in the past, due to less knowledge and a more primitive level of technology, this influence was much greater than it is today, people have always been influenced by the environment and, in turn, have changed the environment (Haggett, translated by Shapour Goudarzinejad, 1384: 401).
This article examines the niche construction of human groups in the northwestern part of the Central Plateau (the Qazvin watershed sub-basin) and the displacement of settlements in relation to geomorphological, altitudinal, drainage network, and climatic changes during the Late Neolithic, Transitional Chalcolithic, and Chalcolithic periods. Niche construction refers to the activities, choices, and processes through which organisms define, select, modify, to some extent create their environments (Odling-Smee et al., 1996; Laland & O’Brien, 2012 & 2015; Laland et al., 2016). The shifting of settlements and the selection of new habitats throughout ancient periods in response to environmental and climatic changes can also be considered a form of niche construction, wherein humans shape the environment according to their needs and lifestyle. In their search for new habitats, communities were compelled to alter the environment around them. Early architecture and the beginning of agriculture are examples of such human interventions in the environment. While the relocation to new areas was a strategy for adapting to environmental changes, it was also itself a significant factor in causing environmental change.
2. Methodology
The study area of this research is the Qazvin sub-basin (Fig. 1). This sub-basin is itself a small part of the larger Namak Lake sub-basin. In terms of geomorphology, the Qazvin sub-basin is divided into three units: the northern unit (Alborz sub-unit), the interior basins and plains unit, and the central Iranian mountains unit (Alaei Taleghani, 1388). The most important landforms in the study area include mountains, alluvial fans, and alluvial plains.
The research began by delineating the Qazvin sub-basin using a 30-meter Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and ArcGIS. Based on the topography of the study area, the drainage network and all potential streams within the Qazvin sub-basin were extracted from the DEM. Subsequently, using ArcGIS, maps of distance from rivers and stream order were created, and analyzed in relation to the distribution, frequency, and density of sites. Afterward, geomorphological zones within the study area were identified and mapped using Google Earth satellite imagery, along with 1:50000 topographic maps and 1:100000 geological maps of the region. Subsequently, the location of ancient settlements was examined in relation to elevation, as well as the distribution of ancient sites across various geomorphological zones. In the next phase, the impacts of Holocene climate change on the settlement patterns of ancient sites over three specified periods were studied and analyzed.
3. Discussion
Analysis of settlement locations in relation to geomorphological features revealed that alluvial fans were the most densely occupied geomorphological landforms in this sub-basin during all three periods. Due to favorable geographic conditions such as gentle slopes, easy access to water resources, and the presence of fine-grained sediments, alluvial fans have historically been among the most preferred geomorphic landforms for settlement on the Iranian Plateau in general. The study of settlements in relation to altitude revealed that the highest density and percentage frequency of sites during the three periods under consideration were found in the 1000 to 1500-meter altitude range. During the Neolithic period, all ancient sites were located within this range, but during the Transitional Chalcolithic and Chalcolithic periods, in addition to this range, the distribution of sites extended to higher altitudes as well. A study of ancient sites in relation to their distance from rivers revealed that in the Qazvin sub-basin, the 0-500-meter range from the rivers was the most densely populated in all three studied periods. On the other hand, examining the location of these sites in relation to the stream order showed that in this sub-basin during the Neolithic period, most of the sites were located near third-order streams. In the Transitional Chalcolithic period, the concentration of sites was near to the first and second-order streams, while in the Chalcolithic period, first and third-order streams had the highest frequency of site concentration in their vicinity.
The relationship between settlement patterns and climate change was also examined. During the Neolithic period, most humans likely settled in low-lying areas with favorable environmental conditions for agricultural activities. During this period, all ancient sites were located in alluvial plains and alluvial fans. Most of the Neolithic archaeological sites in this study belong to the Late Neolithic period with an absolute and relative chronology ranging from 6000 to 5200 BCE (Fazeli Nashli et al., 1398: 48). Comparing this time frame with the climatic events of 9200 and 8200 BP indicates that the beginning of the cultural flourishing of the Neolithic period occurred after these two climatic events and coincided with more favorable climatic conditions.
Research conducted on the Transitional Chalcolithic period indicates an increase in aridity and dust during a portion of this timeframe. According to findings compiled by Sheikh Biklou Islam and colleagues (2023), this period is divided into three climatic phases: (a) 7300-7000 BP, the climate was temperate and humid; (b) 7000-6700 BPE, when humidity decreased; and (c) 6700-6300 BP, when the climate was relatively warm and humid, tending toward aridity towards the end. Our results show that settlement continuity persisted at several ancient sites, while settlement was disrupted at others. All settlements that continued to be occupied during the Neolithic and Transitional Chalcolithic periods were situated on alluvial fans at altitudes ranging between 1000 and 1500 meters. The increase in the frequency of settlements during the Transitional Chalcolithic period compared to the Neolithic period may be attributed to the favorable climatic conditions. Many climate proxies in the Middle East indicate dry climatic conditions during the Chalcolithic period ca. 6400-6000 BP. More than 30% of Chalcolithic sites are located in mountainous areas, and the aridity may have led to a change in subsistence patterns to pastoralism, towards higher altitudes. This indicates a type of ecological continuity and adaptation. On the other hand, a number of ancient sites were abandoned during the Chalcolithic period, mostly located between 500 and 1000 meters from watercourses, and often adjacent to lower-stream orders. As mentioned, during dry periods, due to less rainfall, the probability of watercourses drying up increased, and lower-order streams were often devoid of water flow during these periods. This could have been an aggravating factor in the difficult conditions for continued settlement during the Chalcolithic period in these sites.
4. Conclusion
The results of the study showed that natural conditions including geomorphology, altitude, drainage networks, and paleoclimate have had a significant impact on the pattern and the discontinuities and continuities of the settlement.
Keywords
Main Subjects
- جداری عیوضی، جمشید، (1386)، جغرافیای آبها. انتشارات دانشگاه تهران.
- جناب، مهنوش؛ و نظری، بیژن، (1395)، «مقایسه پهنه بندی اقلیمی استان قزوین با استفاده از روشهای مختلف اقلیمی و نرم افزاری GIS». سومین کنفرانس بینالمللی توسعه پایدار، راهکارها و چالشها با محوریت کشاورزی، منابع طبیعی، محیط زیست و گردشگری .
- چشمی، اکبر؛ فاخر، علی؛ و خامهچیان، ماشاءالله، (1387)، «زمینشناسی آبرفتهای تهران و ارزیابی طبقهبندی ریبن جهت مطالعات زمینشناسی مهندسی». علوم دانشگاه تهران، 34 (2): 15-1. https://journals.ut.ac.ir/article_27989.html
- چورلی، ریچارلد؛ شوم، استنلی؛ و سودن، دیوید، (1375)، ژئومورفولوژی، دیدگاهها. ترجمۀ احمد معتمد، انتشارات سمت.
- حسینزاده، محمد مهدی؛ و اسماعیلی، رضا، (1394)، ژئومورفولوژی رودخانهای، مفاهیم، فرمها و فرآیندها. انتشارات دانشگاه شهید بهشتی.
- شایان، سیاوش، (1388)، فرهنگ اصطلاحات جغرافیای طبیعی. انتشارات مدرسه.
- شیخبیکلواسلام، بابک؛ چایچیامیرخیز، احمد؛ و سعیدی، محمدرضا، (1402)، پژوهشهای دیرین اقلیم در مطالعات باستانشناسی. انتشارات سمت.
- گیرشمن، رومن، (1379)، سیلک کاشان. جلد اول، ترجمۀ اصغر کریمی، سازمان میراثفرهنگی، گردشگری و صنایعدستی
- مجیدزاده، یوسف، (1389)، کاوشهای محوطۀ باستانی ازبکی. جلد دوم، تهران، اداره کل میراثفرهنگی، صنایعدستی و گردشگری استان تهران.
- عزیزی، قاسم؛ و داوودی، محمود، (1398)، «تغییرات اقلیمی ایران در دورۀ هولوسن». کواترنری ایران، 5 (1): 25-1. https://doi.org/10.22034/irqua.2019.702214
- علاییطالقانی، محمود، (1388)، ژئومورفولوژی ایران. نشر قومس.
- فاضلینشلی، حسن؛ داوودی، حسین؛ و اسلامی، فروزان، (1398)، گاهنگاری مرکز فلات ایران از دورۀ نوسنگی جدید تا پایان عصر آهن، تهران. بنیاد ایرانشناسی.
- فاضلینشلی، حسن، (1403)، «سیلک کاشان در پهنه پیشازتاریخ 6000 تا 3000 پیشازمیلاد». (چاپ نشده).
- گوتیرز، فرانسیسکو؛ و گوتیرز، ماتئو، (1399)، لندفرمهای سطح زمین. ترجمه: مجتبی یمانی و زهرا حاجی کریمی، نشر انتخاب.
- ملکشهمیرزادی، صادق، (1396)، گفتارهایی در باستانشناسی (مجموعه مقالات پژوهشی و تخصصی)، انتشارات سمت.
- محمودی، فرجالله، (1402)، ژئومورفولوژی دینامیک. انتشارات دانشگاه پیام نور.
- مقصودی، مهران؛ ابراهیم خانی، نرگس؛ یمانی، مجتبی (1391 ب) تأثیر نئوتکتونیک بر مخروطافکنه رود حاجی عرب (دشت قزوین) با بررسی دادههای مورفومتری و رسوبشناسی، فصلنامه انجمن جغرافیای ایران، دوره جدید، سال دهم، شماره 33، 106-87
- مقصودی، مهران؛ و محمدنژادآروق، وحید، (1391)، ژئومورفولوژی مخروطافکنهها. انتشارات دانشگاه تهران.
- مقصودی، مهران؛ فاضلینشلی، حسن؛ عزیزی، قاسم؛ گیلمور؛ گوین؛ و اشمیت، آرمین، (1391 الف)، «نقش مخروطافکنهها در توزیع سکونتگاههای پیشازتاریخ از دیدگاه زمینباستانشناسی، مطالعۀ موردی: مخروطافکنه جاجرود و حاجیعرب». پژوهشهای جغرافیای طبیعی، 44 (4): 22-1. https://doi.org/10.22059/jphgr.2012.30239
- نایبزاده، فرین؛ مددی، عقیل؛ و عزیزی، قاسم، (1396)، «شواهد ژئومورفولوژی کواترنری دشت قزوین و اشتهارد». فصلنامۀ کواترنری ایران، 3 (4): 346-331. https://doi.org/10.22034/irqua.2018.701919
_ویت، مری؛ و دایسون، رابرت، (1382)، گاهنگاری ایران از هفت هزار سال تا دو هزار سال پیشازمیلاد. ترجمۀ فرج اکبرپور، احمد چایچی امیرخیز، انتشارات نسل باران.
- هاگت، پیتر، (1384)، جغرافیا ترکیبی نو (جلد اول)، ترجمۀ کتاب: شاپور گودرزی نژاد.
- هدایتی دزفولی، اکرم؛ و کاکاوند، رضا، (1391)، «پهنهبندی اقلیمی استان قزوین». مجله علمی و فنی نیوار،76 -77: 59-66. https://nivar.irimo.ir/article_13201.html
- Alaei Taleghani, M., (2010). Geomorphology of Iran. Qommes Press. (in Persian)
- Alley, R. B., Mayewski, P. A. & Sowers, T., (1997). “Holocene climatic instability: A prominent, widespread event 8200 yr ago”. Geology, 25: 483–486. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1997)025<0483:HCIAPW>2.3.CO;2
- Alley, R. B., Agústsdóttir, A. M. & Otter, A. M., (2005). “The 8k event: Cause and consequences of a major Holocene abrupt climate change”. Quaternary Science Reviews, 24: 1123–1149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.12.004
- Andrews, J. E., Carolin, S. A., Peckover, E. N., Marca, A., Al-Omari, S. & Rowe, P. J. (2020). “Holocene stable isotope record of insolation and rapid climate change in a stalagmite from the Zagros of Iran”. Quaternary Science Reviews, 241: 106433, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106433
- Arponen, V. P. J., Dörfler, W., Feeser, I., Grimm, S., Groß, D., Hinz, M., Knitter, D., Müller-Scheeßel, N., Ott, K. & Ribeiro, A., (2019). “Environmental determinism and archaeology: Understanding and evaluating determinism in research design”. Archaeological Dialogues, 26: 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1380203819000059
- Azizi, G. & Davoudi, M., (2019). “Iran’s climatic change in the Holocene”. Quaternary Journal of Iran, 5(1): 1–25. (in Persian)
- Bernal, J. P., Cruz, F. W., Stríkis, N. M., Wang, X., Deininger, M., Catunda, M. C. A., Ortega-Obregón, C., Cheng, H., Edwards, R. L. & Auler, A. S. (2016). “High-resolution Holocene South American monsoon history recorded by speleothem from Botuverá Cave, Brazil”. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 450: 186–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2016.06.008
- Bicho, N. & Cascalheira, J., (2018). “Global perspectives on the impact of drastic environmental changes in hunter-gatherer technologies”. Journal of Quaternary Science, 33(3): 255–367. https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.3003
- Bond, G., Showers, W., Chesesby, M., Lotti, R., Almasi, P., deMenocal, P., Priore, P., Cullen, H., Hajdas, I. & Bonani, G., (1997). “A pervasive millennial-scale cycle in North Atlantic Holocene and glacial climates”. Science, 278: 1257–1266. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.278.5341.1257
- Bond, G., Kromer, B., Beer, J., Muscheler, R., Evans, M. N., Showers, W., Hoffmann, S., Lotti-Bond, R., Hajdas, I. & Bonani, G., (2001). “Persistent solar influence on North Atlantic climate during the Holocene”. Science, 294(55-49): 2130–2136. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1065680
- Cheshmi, A., Fakhar, A. & Khamechian, M., (2007). “Geology of Tehran Alluvium and Evaluation of Riban Classification for Engineering Geological Studies”. Journal of Sciences, University of Tehran, 34(2): 1–15. (in Persian)
- Childe, V. G., (1943). New light on the most ancient east: the oriental prelude to European prehistory”.
- Chorley, R. J., Schumm, S. A. & Sugden, D. E., (1996). Geomorphology. Motamed, A., Trans. SAMT Publication. (in Persian)
- Ehdaei, A., Maghsoudi, M., Zamanzadeh, S. M., Yamani, M., (2023). “The Settlement Pattern of Ancient Sites in the Southeastern Sub-Basins of the Caspian Sea, from the Hydro Geomorphological Perspective”. Journal of Archaeological Studies, 2 (15): 17-41.
- Fazli Nashli, H., (1403). Silk of Kashan in the Pre-Historic Period of 6000 to 3000 BC, Unpublished (in Persian)
- Fazeli Nashli, H., Davoudi, H., Eslami, F., (2019). Chronology of the central plateau of Iran, from late Neolithic to the end of Iron age. Iranology Foundation. (in Persian)
- Feurdean, A., Klotz, S., Mosbrugger, V. & Wohlfarth, B., (2008). “Pollen-based quantitative reconstructions of Holocene climate variability in NW Romania, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology”. Palaeoecology, 260: 494-504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.12.014
- Fleitmann, D., Mudelsee, M., Burns, S. J., Bradley, R. S., Kramers, J. & Matter, A. (2008). “Evidence for a widespread climatic anomaly at around 9.2 ka before present”. Paleoceanography, 23: 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007PA001519
- Flohr, P., Fleitmann, D., Matthews, R., Matthews, W. & Black, S. (2016). “Evidence of resilience to past climate change in Southwest Asia: Early farming communities and the 9.2 and 8.2 ka events”. Quaternary Science Reviews: 23–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.06.022
- Ghirshman, R., (1990). Sialk, Kashan (A. Karimi, Trans.) (Vol. 1). Cultural Heritage, Handcrafts and Tourism Organization. (in Persian)
- Gupta, A. K., Das, M. & Anderson, D. M. (2005). “Solar influence on the Indian summer monsoon during the Holocene”. Geophysical Research Letters, 32: L17703. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL022685
- Gutiérrez, F. & Gutiérrez, M., (2021). Landforms of the Earth (M. Yamani & Z. Haji Karimi, Trans.). Nashr-e Entkhab. (in Persian)
- Hagget, P., (2004). Geography, a modern synthesis (Shapour Gudarzinejad, Trans.). SAMT Publication. (in Persian)
- Hamzeh, M. A., Mahmudy-Gharaei, M. H., Alizadeh-Lahijani, H., Mossavi-Harami, R., Djamali, M. & Naderi Beni, A. (2016). “Paleo limnology of lake Hamoun (E Iran): Implication for past climate changes and possible impacts on human settlements”. PALAIOS, 31: 616–629.https://doi.org/10.2110/palo.2016.055
- Hedayati, A. & Kakavand, R. (2012). “Climatic zoning of Qazvin Province”. Nivar, 36(76-77): 59-66. https://nivar.irimo.ir/article_13201.html. (in Persian)
- Hoseinzadeh, M. M. & Esmaeili, R. (2015). Fluvial geomorphology: Concepts, forms, and processes. Shahid Beheshti University Press. (in Persian)
- Jedari Eyvazi, J., (2007). Geography of Waters. University of Tehran Press. (in Persian)
- Jenab, M. & Nazari, B., (2016). “Comparison of Climate Zoning in Qazvin Province Using Various Climatic Methods and GIS Software”. In: The 3rd International Conference on Sustainable Development: Solutions and Challenges with a Focus on Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and Tourism. (in Persian)
- Jones, C. G., Lawton, J. H. & Shachak, M., (1997). “Positive and negative effects of organisms as physical ecosystem engineers”. Ecology, 78(1): 46–57. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(1997)078[1946:PANEOO]2.0.CO;2
- Kassa Ayichew, F., (2014). “The paradox in environmental determinism and possibilism: A literature review”. Journal of Geography and Regional Planning, 7(7): 132–139. https://doi.org/10.5897/JGRP2013.0406
- Kristiansen, K., (2014). “Towards a new paradigm? The third science revolution and its possible consequences in archaeology”. Current Swedish Archaeology, 22: 11–34. https://doi.org/10.37718/CSA.2014.01
- Laland, K. N. & O’Brien, M. J. (2012). Cultural niche construction: An introduction. Biological Theory, Konrad Lorenz Institute for Evolution and Cognition Research.
- Laland, K. N. & O’Brien, M. J. (2015). Niche construction: Implications for human sciences. Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0242
- Laland, K. N., Blake Matthews, & Feldman, M. W., (2016). “An introduction to niche construction theory”. Evolutionary Ecology, 30: 191–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10682-016-9821-z
- Laland, K. N., Odling-Smee, J. & Feldman, M., (2000). “Niche construction: A pervasive force in evolution?”. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23: 131–175. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00002417
- Liu, D., Wang, Y., Cheng, H., Edwards, R. L. & Kong, X., (2015). “Cyclic changes of Asian monsoon intensity during the early mid-Holocene from annually-laminated stalagmites, central China”. Quaternary Science Reviews, 121: 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.05.003
- Maghsoudi, M., Ebrahimkhani, N. & Yamani, M. (2012). “The effect of neotectonic on Haji Arab Fan (Qazvin Plain) by sedimentologic and morphometric data”. Geography, 33: 87–106. (in Persian)
- Maghsoudi, M., Fazeli Nashli, H., Azizi, G., Gillmore, G. & Schmit, A., (2013). “Geoarchaeology of alluvial fans: A case study from Jajroud and Hajiarab alluvial fans in Iran”. Physical Geography Research Quarterly, 44: 1–22. (in Persian)
- Maghsoudi, M. & Mohammad Nejad Arooq, V., (2013). Geomorphology of alluvial fans. University of Tehran Press. (in Persian)
- Mahmoudi, F., (2023). Dynamic geomorphology. Payame Noor University Press. (in Persian)
- Majidzadeh, Y., (1981). “Sialk III and the pottery sequence at Tape Ghabrestan”. The coherence of the cultures of the Iranian Central Plateau: 141–146. https://doi.org/10.2307/4299711
- Majidzadeh, Y., (2009). Excavations at the ancient site of Ozbaki (Vol. 2). Tehran: Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization of Tehran Province. (in Persian)
- Malek Shahmirzadi, S., (2017). Discourses in archaeology (A collection of articles in Iranian archaeological research). SAMT Publication. (in Persian)
- Matthews, R. & Fazeli Nashli, H., (2022). The archaeology of Iran from the Palaeolithic to the Achaemenid Empire. Routledge World Archaeology. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003224129
- McCown, D. E., (1957). The comparative stratigraphy of early Iran. Chicago University Press.
- Meggers, B. J., (1954). “Environmental limitation on the development of culture”. American Anthropologist, 801–824. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1954.56.5.02a00060
- Nayebzadeh, F., Madadi, A. & Azizi, G. (2018). “Quaternary geo-morphological evidence of Qazvin and Eshtehard plains”. Quaternary Journal of Iran, 3: 331–346. (in Persian)
- Odling-Smee, J., Laland, K. N. & Feldman, M. (1996). “Niche construction”. The American Naturalist, 147(4): 641–648. https://doi.org/10.1086/285870
- Pędziszewska, A., Tylmann, W., Witak, M., Piotrowska, N., Maciejewska, E. & Latałowa, M. (2015). “Holocene environmental changes reflected by pollen, diatoms, and geochemistry of annually laminated sediments of Lake Suminko in the Kashubian Lake District (N Poland)”. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 216: 55–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revpalbo.2015.01.008
- Pourahmad, A., (2006). The realm and philosophy of geography. University of Tehran Press. (in Persian)
- Relph, E., (1987). The modern urban landscape. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Revel, M., Ducassou, E., Grousset, F. E., Bernasconi, S. M., Migeon, S., Revillon, S., Mascle, J., Murat, A., Zaragosi, S. & Bosch, D. (2010). “100,000 years of African monsoon variability recorded in sediments of the Nile margin”. Quaternary Science Reviews, 29: 1342–1362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.02.006
- Safaierad, R., Mohtadi, M., Zolitschka, B., Yokoyama, Y. & Vogt, C. (2020). “Elevated dust depositions in West Asia linked to ocean–atmosphere shifts during North Atlantic cold events”. PNAS, 117(31): 18272–18277. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2004071117
- Safaierad, R., Matthews, R., Dupont, L. M., Zolitschka, B., Marianova, E., Djamali, M., Vogt, C., Azizi, G., Lahijani, H. & Matthews, W. (2023). “Vegetation and climate dynamics at the dawn of human settlement: Multiproxy palaeoenvironmental evidence from the Hashilan Wetland, western Iran”. Journal of Quaternary Science, 38(8): 1289–1304. https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.3557
- Shaikh Baikloo Islam, B., Chaych Amirkhiz, A. & Saeedi, M., (2023). Paleoclimate research in archaeological studies. SAMT Publication. (in Persian)
- Sharifi, A., Pourmand, A., Canuel, E. A., Ferer-Tyler, E., Peterson, L., Aichner, B., Feakins, S. J., Daryaee, T., Djamali, M., Naderi Beni, A., Lahijani, H. A. K. & Swart, P. K. (2015). “Abrupt climate variability since the last deglaciation based on a high-resolution, multi-proxy peat record from NW Iran: The hand that rocked the Cradle of Civilization?” Quaternary Science Reviews, 123: 215–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.07.006
- Sharifi, A., Djamali, M., Peterson, L., Swart, P. K., Guadalupe, M., Ávila, P., Esfahaninejad, M., Beaulieu, J.-L., Lahijani, H. & Pourmand, A. (2023). “The rise and demise of Iran’s Urmia Lake during the Holocene and the Anthropocene: ‘what’s past is prologue’”. Regional Environmental Change, 23(121): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-023-02119-x
- Shayan, S., (2009). A dictionary of physical geography. Madreseh Publication. (in Persian)
- Vaezi, A., Ghazban, F., Tavakoli, V., Routh, J., Naderi Beni, A., Bianchi, T. S., Curtis, J. H. & Kylin, H. (2018). “A Late Pleistocene-Holocene multi-proxy record of climate variability in the Jazmurian playa, southeastern Iran”. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 8932: 1–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2018.09.026
- Voigt, M. & Dyson, R., (2002). The chronology of Iran from 7000 to 2000 BC (F. Akbarpour, A. Chaichi Amir Khiz, Trans.). Nasel Baran Publications. (in Persian)
- Zielhofer, C., von Suchodoletz, H., Fletcher, W. J., Schneider, B., Dietze, E., Schlegel, M., Schepanski, K., Weninger, B., Mischke, S. & Mikdad, A., (2017). “Millennial-scale fluctuations in Saharan dust supply across the decline of the African Humid Period”. Quaternary Science Reviews, 171: 119–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.07.010
)