Journal of Archaeological Studies

Symbology and Study of Mint Activity Regarding the Smallest Sasanian Monetary Unit

Hakimeh Ahmadizadeh shendi; Reza Shabani; Javad Heravi

Volume 17, Issue 1 , June 2025, , Pages 279-300

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2024.371446.143249

Abstract

AbstractIn the financial system of the Sassanid era (651–224 AD), in addition to the two main monetary units namely the Dinar (gold) and the Dirham (silver) there were other lesser-valued ... Read More AbstractIn the financial system of the Sassanid era (651–224 AD), in addition to the two main monetary units namely the Dinar (gold) and the Dirham (silver) there were other lesser-valued units in circulation which, particularly in certain regions of Iran, played a significant role in the everyday economic transactions of the people. These lesser-valued units, which included coins made of low-weight silver, copper, brass, and bronze, played a major role in the general economy and daily exchanges. An examination of these small coins, in addition to revealing their material composition, led to the discovery of unique designs and symbols that are not observed on any of the Sassanid gold and silver coins. An intriguing aspect of these coins is the inclusion of distinctive designs and symbols that were never employed on the dinars and dirhams; they feature large depictions of the sun, the moon, a star, and a burning brazier on the coin, which undoubtedly signify a particular subject and belief. We know that the sun and the moon, as described in the Avesta as Zoroastrian deities, appear on these coins. By examining small coins such as the Pashiz and studying the Pahlavi texts of the Sassanid era alongside the religious Avesta rich with depictions of sacred symbols and by analyzing historical events and the reigns of various Sassanid kings, it can be concluded that these designs indeed reflect the religious beliefs and convictions of the people of that time. Moreover, not only are the symbolic designs significant, but the names of the mints where these coins were struck also hold considerable importance in this study. In addition, the Pashiz coins of the Malek Museum have been regarded as important examples. Therefore, in this article we intend to provide a comprehensive review of all these designs and symbols, as well as to introduce the mints and their functions during the Sassanid period, and to analyze their connection with the religious and cultural beliefs of that era. Keywords: Sassanid Period, Small Coins, Mints, Motifs and Symbols. 1. IntroductionDuring the Sassanian era (224–651 CE), the empire minted not only valuable coins like the dinar and dirham but also smaller coins made of copper, brass, bronze, and low-weight silver. While the dinar and dirham were primarily used for high-level transactions, the smaller coins, often referred to as “pashiz” or “dong,” played a crucial role in daily commerce. These coins were widely circulated throughout the Sassanian Empire and served as the foundation for the everyday economic exchanges within Iranshahr (Sassanian Persia). Despite their low monetary value, these small coins carried unique symbols, motifs, and textual inscriptions, which were distinct from those found on the dinars and dirhams.The issue that this study seeks to address is the insufficient scholarly attention given to these lesser-valued coins in the field of numismatics. These small coins often carry intricate designs and politically significant texts that may provide valuable insights into the religious, political, and economic ideologies of the Sassanian Empire. Understanding the reasons behind the inclusion of such motifs and texts, as well as their implications for the rulers’ beliefs and policies, could offer a fresh perspective on Sassanian society and governance. The study of small Sassanian coins is important for several reasons. As evidenced by scholars such as Vladimir Grigorievich Lukonin and Robert Gobel, these coins have largely been overlooked in the field of numismatics. Lukonin briefly discussed the early Sassanian copper mints but did not delve deeply into the designs or inscriptions of these smaller coins. Similarly, while Gobel acknowledged their existence, his focus remained primarily on the more valuable dirham and dinar coins, leaving the pashiz and dong largely unexplored.In recent years, Austrian numismatist Nicholas Schindel has drawn attention to these coins, but comprehensive research on their unique motifs and the mints responsible for their production is still lacking. The study of the design and symbolism on these small coins not only enhances our understanding of the Sassanian economy but also provides deeper insight into the political and religious symbols that shaped the Sassanian state. These small coins were in common circulation, and their designs may offer a glimpse into how the rulers sought to project their Authority and beliefs to the broader population. These coins were more frequently used in daily transactions, making them more representative of the general populace’s economic activity. Consequently, their study could reveal how Sassanian rulers sought to communicate their ideology, political objectives, and religious beliefs to the public. The symbols and texts used on these coins may reflect the political climate of the time, illustrating the rulers’ efforts to consolidate power and communicate their policies effectively.The central question driving this research is: What was the significance of the unique symbols, motifs, and texts found on small coins (pashiz and dong) in the Sassanian era, and why were these elements used on these coins rather than the more valuable dinars and dirhams? This research question will guide the investigation into the cultural, religious, and political motivations behind the designs and inscriptions on these small coins. By closely examining these elements, the study aims to uncover why the Sassanian rulers chose these specific motifs and texts, and how they reflect broader societal and political dynamics. 4. Discussion 2. DiscussionThe research will employ a combination of qualitative and descriptive analysis, focusing on primary sources and archaeological artifacts. One important component of the study will be an examination of small coins housed in the Malek National Museum in Tehran, particularly those made of copper, and pashiz, which have not been thoroughly analyzed in previous research.These coins will be used to illustrate the specific motifs, symbols, and texts found on Sassanian small coins.The study will also incorporate the work of previous numismatists, including Lukonin (Lukonin, 1393), Gobel (Althaim et al., 2012), and Schindel (Schindel, 2014), to provide context for the analysis of these coins. By closely examining the coins’ design elements, particular attention will be given to the patterns that appear in front of the emperor’s face, as these often symbolize specific religious or political beliefs. The inclusion of mint marks and abbreviations will also be analyzed to understand the geographical and administrative distribution of coin production across the Sassanian Empire.One key aspect of the research will be to distinguish between the motifs used on small coins and those found on dinars and dirhams. This comparison will help determine why certain symbols and texts were reserved for the smaller coins, and what this information reveals about the broader social and political context of the Sassanian Empire. Furthermore, this study will explore the significance of minting practices, including the role of mint marks and the locations where these small coins were produced.The study of small Sassanian coins has yielded several significant findings. One of the most striking aspects of these coins is the inclusion of large and elaborate motifs, particularly on the reverse side of the coin, which often surrounds or is positioned next to the emperor’s face. These motifs are distinct from those found on the dinars and dirhams, and they appear to serve specific religious, political, or symbolic purposes.For example, many of the small coins feature representations of Zoroastrian symbols, such as fire altars, which are emblematic of the state religion of the Sassanian Empire. Other common motifs include depictions of imperial iconography, such as crowns and royal insignia, which reinforced the divine right of the emperor and his association with the gods. The inclusion of such symbols on low-value coins suggests that the Sassanian rulers sought to project their political legitimacy and reinforce their religious authority at all levels of currency, not just with high-value coins like the dinar and dirham. 3. ConclosionAnother significant finding is the frequent use of mint marks and abbreviations on these small coins. These marks indicate the geographical origins of the coins and provide valuable insight into the distribution of minting activities throughout the Sassanian Empire. The presence of mint marks, along with the inclusion of names of important cities and provinces, suggests that the Sassanian rulers were keen on controlling and monitoring economic activity at the local level. This further underscores the importance of minting as a tool for political control, similar to the minting practices of dirhams and dinars. Additionally, the presence of coins with no text but elaborate patterns next to the emperor’s face highlights the use of symbolic language as a form of communication. These coins may have been used in specific contexts, such as religious ceremonies or festivals, where the visual impact of the coin’s design was more important than any textual content.In conclusion, this study highlights the significant role that small coins played in the Sassanian Empire, especially in reflecting the political, religious, and economic ideologies of the time. Despite their low monetary value, these coins carried symbols and texts that communicated important messages to the populace. The use of unique motifs and mint marks on these coins illustrates how the Sassanian rulers sought to project their authority and religious beliefs to a wide audience. The research into the small coins of the Sassanian era, particularly through the analysis of coins from the Malek National Museum, offers valuable insights into the culture and governance of the Sassanian Empire.

Archaeology of Qara Dagh: Preliminary Report of the Survey of the Bronze and Iron Age Sites in Varzeqan Region (Iranian Azerbaijan)

Hossein Naseri Someeh; Alireza Hejebri Nobari; Erkan Konyar

Volume 13, Issue 4 , September 2022, , Pages 283-306

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.284880.142749

Abstract

Archaeological studies in the region of Qara Dagh (or Arasbaran) are of particular importance due to the fact that this region is located in the area between East-West (Iranian) Azerbaijan ... Read More Archaeological studies in the region of Qara Dagh (or Arasbaran) are of particular importance due to the fact that this region is located in the area between East-West (Iranian) Azerbaijan and Iran-Anatolian Plateau, as well as north to south of Caucasus-Iran. Archaeological activities in Qara Dagh are often aimed at conducting systematic research to explain the socio-political situations, investigate the cultural-technological currents and changes, explore the connecting and commercial routes of Northern region of Azerbaijan during the Bronze and Iron ages, outline the long-term scientific landscape, and also to understand the archaeological status of the region, relying on field and laboratory methods. The first season of this project, in 2017, dealt with identification of the Bronze and Iron Age sites of Varzeqan city. During the present survey, have been recorded 143 sites from the early Bronze Age to the Iron Age III in the region; and from the most important results of this survey, the changes recorded during the transitions from each period to the next period in relation to demographic changes, settlement patterns and location selecting, evaluating the landscape and natural resources in order to be aware of food networks and economic systems, studying the ecology of the region, livelihood approaches and burial methods can be mentioned. According to this evidence, settlements have been very limited in the region during the early Bronze Age. With the collapse of semi-farmer communities in the early Bronze Age, nomadic life was limitedly formed in the middle of the Bronze Age. In the late of Middle Bronze Age, once again, with the formation of sedentary communities, an increase in the population of the region and the emergence of social complexities are seen during the late Bronze Age to the Iron Age II, followed by the establishment of a primitive class society which was formed under the administration of local small rulers

Correlation Between Levallois Core Preparation Techniques in China and Those Found in the Altai and Mongolian Regions

Zheyang Chen; William Davies

Volume 17, Issue 2 , August 2025, , Pages 283-315

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2025.400441.143373

Abstract

This study adopts a data-driven framework to investigate regional variation in Levallois core technology, aiming to assess the stability of flaking techniques and the diversity of technological ... Read More This study adopts a data-driven framework to investigate regional variation in Levallois core technology, aiming to assess the stability of flaking techniques and the diversity of technological exchange across Russia, Mongolia, and northern China. Guided by Boëda’s comprehensive typology, cores are first classified into preferential, centripetal, bipolar, and unipolar types, then quantitatively analysed through two-dimensional lithic-image analysis. In Mongolia, preferential and centripetal Levallois sequences are mature and stable: scar-density indices at all sampled sites exceed 60%, and coefficients of variation remain low, demonstrating highly standardised reduction concepts. In contrast, Russian assemblages exhibit pronounced inter-site heterogeneity; centripetal cores from Anui-1 are remarkably consistent, whereas contemporaneous layers at Kara-Bom display wide metrical dispersion. At Shuidonggou in China, the overall technological level is slightly lower, yet Layers 7 and 6 clearly inherit technical traits from underlying Layer 8, implying in-situ continuity rather than abrupt replacement. At Tongtian Cave in western China, cores show markedly lower scar coverage and smaller detached-flake areas, indicating a lower degree of technical mastery than at the more centrally located Shuidonggou site. Russian bipolar Levallois shows limited affinity with Chinese counterparts, whereas centripetal cores from Kara-Tenesh cluster tightly with Shuidonggou Layer 7. Crucially, within single Chinese sites different stratigraphic layers alternately align with Mongolian or Russian traditions, evidencing repeated episodes of introduction, assimilation, and re-innovation. In sum, Levallois technology entered China not through a single corridor but via multiple temporally staggered pathways. Chinese Levallois origins are polygenic, and several dispersal routes likely operated across northern Eurasia. Rather than a unidirectional corridor, the region functioned as a reticulated, continuously interacting technological landscape.

The Chronological Analysis and Process of Evolution of Settlements from The Uruk Period to the End of Neo- Elamite Period, in The Deh Luran Plain (Patak)

shaghayegh Hourshid

Volume 15, Issue 1 , April 2023, , Pages 293-324

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2022.348647.143159

Abstract

The beginning of field research in the Deh Luran Plain dates back to the early twentieth century. During this period, researches have been mainly focused on the northwestern part of ... Read More

The Qumis Earthquake of 856 CE:A Review of Paleoseismological Studies of the Astaneh Fault System, Central Alborz

Hamid Nazari; Jean-François ritz; Magali Rizza; Reza Salamati; shenon mahan; mohammad ali shokri; J-L Michelot; m Massault; mohammad foroutan; Shirin Zarei

Volume 16, Issue 1 , February 2024, , Pages 299-328

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2023.358711.143202

Abstract

The Astaneh Fault is classically described as the source of the most destructive seismic event in the history in Northeastern Iran, the 856 CE Qumis earthquake with an estimated magnitude ... Read More

Authentication of a Newly Found Silver Plate with Ram Design, Museum of Sari

Saman Soortiji

Volume 17, Issue 1 , June 2025, , Pages 301-326

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2024.380698.143285

Abstract

AbstractCooperation of skilled Sassanid painters and metal workers led to the creation of masterpieces in the collections and museums and around the world, especially the silver plates ... Read More AbstractCooperation of skilled Sassanid painters and metal workers led to the creation of masterpieces in the collections and museums and around the world, especially the silver plates that were decorated by augmentation, hammering, engraving, gilding, and other techniques. On the one hand, noble tastes led to creation of these artifacts, whereas forgers take the opportunity to produce fakes similar to the original artifacts. Therefore, due to the high rate of discoveries from smugglers, the objects must be studied and authenticated more deeply. The present paper studies a silver plate with a ram design that was produced during the Sassanid period and which was discovered by smugglers in Mazandaran province. The plate is registered in the historical list of Sari Collection, however, the author hesitated to confirm the authentication of the same object. Through study, the author recognized the original plate, which led to present paper as the authentication and comparison of both. The present paper points to the authentication methods of the Sassanid silver plate, while introducing motifs that reflect a powerful government with royal requisites and religious rites, however, in the end, while the plate expresses the skillfulness of a master who created the most appropriate composition, the authentication of the plate denied and has been listed as a forgery. Keywords: Silver Plate, Sassanid, Ram, Composition, Forgery, Collection of Sari. 1. IntroductionThe Sassanid kingdom was of the most powerful Iranian dynasties that deeply influenced the artistic and cultural evolution of Iran. Roman Ghirshman explains art of the period as having “a mixed composition, combining influences from east and west, presenting a national Iranian melting pot, aimed at reclaiming ancient Achaemenid honor and credit” (Ghirshman 1350: 134). Metal works are highly regarded among contemporary artists. The objects that reveal skill of the contemporary artists and highly regarded across world (Ehsani 1382: 104), especially silver vessels that were manufactured using several techniques including engraving, augmentation, molding, embossment, and gilding (Ganter & Jet 1383: 360-362). The cooperation of skillful painters, metal workers, and engravers led to manufacturing unique masterpieces in the collections across the world. Yet the renown of this type of object has led to forgeries, in which fake objects are produced following a contemporary style.Therefore, it should be noted that the analysis and authentication of objects obtained from looters is a necessity. The present paper involves in study of a silver plate with ram design that was manufactured following Sassanid style and seized from looters in Mazandaran in the year 1389 (2010/11) (Fig. 1). The curator of the Sari Collection registered the plate as an original object, however, the author revisited the plate and doubted its authenticity. Through investigation, the original plate was recognized and is presented in the present paper. There was an opportunity to study the artistic composition of the plate, considering the aesthetic and artistic skill of the Sassanid metalworker. Additionally, the present paper introduces the iconology of motifs, considering orientation of design and type of engraving. 2. MethodologyBibliographic research and the examination of credible sources, along with digital comparative analysis of similar images, constitute key methodologies for the study and authentication of the plate. Sassanid plates have generally been discovered of mountainous regions of Caucasia, Mazandaran, Susa, Qasr-e Abu Nasr, Tal-e Malyan, and other regions in Iran (Chegini 1367: 17-22). The vessel is sometimes gilded with various designs (Bosili and Scheratto 1383: 85). Contemporaneous artists were always supported by high-ranking nobles (Pope 1338: 57). The artists were inspired by nature and tried to present royal and ritual demands (Harrper 1986: 592). The most significant studied Sassanid silver plates are the gilded vessel with Khosrow II’s figure in the Hermitage (Harper-Meyers 1981: 220) (Fig. 2), the gilded plate from Russian Cherdin (ibid: 228) (Fig. 3), the gilded plate from Russian Preshchina (ibid: 229) (Fig. 4), the silver plate in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (Pope 1945: 229) (Fig. 5), the gilded plate with figure of Piruz or Ghobad I (Harper-Meyers 1981: XII) (Fig. 6), the gilded plate with a royal hunting scene and a king with a horned helmet hunting a boar (ibid: XIV) (fig. 7), the gilded bowl with a scene of vine, birds, and four leg animals (Holmes 1968: 23) (Fig. 8), the gilded plate in Arthur Sackler Gallery with a middle Persian inscription (Grabar 1967: 125) (Fig. 9), a plate with ram design that has a ribbon on the back of its neck (Harper 1978: 127), the gilded plate from Arthur M. Sackler Gallery (Ganther and Jet 1383: 188) (Fig. 11), two gilded plates with a scene of a ram and tulips, in the Metropolitan Art Museum of New York (Brunner 1978: 116-117) (Figs. 12-13). 3. Introduction to the case studyThe vessel is a silver plate with a diameter of 21.6 cm. It is composed of two joined shells formed using a hammering technique, while the decorative elements were created using the toreutic method. The upper shell features a scene depicting a ram facing left, adorned with a ribbon; the background includes a vine and mountainous landscape with vegetation (Fig. 14). The outer shell displays a plain design with a shallow groove. 4. Authentication of the vesselThe plate is an imitation of the Sassanid artistic style, firstly, registered as an original object the collection of Museum of Sari, where the author doubted the authenticity following characteristic criteria including orientation of the design. Most importantly, animal figures on Sassanid plates never face to left. Following written sources, the author recognized the plate of Museum of Boston as the forgery template (Fig. 17), however, they have both general and specific differences. 5. Composition of the original plateComposition presents both integrity and appropriation through parts of a piece (Rankinpour 1382: 4). A Sassanid artist balanced the visual heaviness of the ribbon on the neck of the ram with a vine within a hypothetical triangle. He/she designed the vine on the chest of the ram to fill the scene and direct the audience look from right of the image to the ribbon, or vice versa. The artist used various symbols designed the highest vine on the tip of the triangle, with two birds at the most appropriate place. 6. ConclusionThe plate of the collection of the Sari Museum is a forgery of Sassanid designs and technology, without observance of primary decorative principles of the period. The designs of Sassanid plates face to the right, while contemporary toreutics, under the Isfahan school, differ from the Sassanid techniques. The original plate contains several symbols of ancient Iran and Zoroastrianism: a ram with curved horns symbolizes God and points to victory, and a raised ribbon relates to monarchy; a vine implies emergence of the spring season and means productivity and farewell; and finally, the bird is a profitable bird for farms. The Sassanid artist was so skilled as to compose triangle with different symbols to create a valuable piece. Consequently, the plate of the Collection of Sari is rejected as authentic, and has been reregistered as a forgery, no. 181-2.

Chronology and Functional Analysis of the Site Known as Qale-e Sam in the Historical Province of Masbazan (Ilam Province)

Younes Yousefvand; Farshad Miri

Volume 13, Issue 4 , September 2022, , Pages 307-330

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.288249.142774

Abstract

Qaleh Sam is located in Holeylan district in Sirvan/Shirvan County in the northeast of Ilam province. This monument is one of the worthy Iranian architecture in the central Zagros cultural ... Read More Qaleh Sam is located in Holeylan district in Sirvan/Shirvan County in the northeast of Ilam province. This monument is one of the worthy Iranian architecture in the central Zagros cultural zone. Despite its importance, this monument is unknown until now. Qaleh Sam is located in Si’pelah canyon on the border of Lorestan and Ilam provinces. In Si’pelah, in addition to Qaleh Sam, remains some of the other buildings such as: a bridge, some military installations, a Char Taq, a water mill, and two ruined sites. The distribution pattern of these monuments in Si’pelah Canyon shows that they are related to Qaleh Sam, and they could be interpreted together. As the focal point of formation for the architetural complex in Si’pelah canyon the Qale Sam has archaeological and architectural values. The main structure of this monument consists of a residential building with a focal char tag in down and a fortress on top. Nevertheless, it has been neglected by researchers and its historical and functional nature remains unclear. The purpose of this paper is the introduction the Qale Sam by relying on archaeological findings and existing architectural evidence and evaluating and analyzing functional identity and its chronology. The research approach is historical and findings have been collected through field methods and the study of library texts. The study of archaeological and architectural findings of Qale Sam along with the study of its geographic location and the analysis of the spatial organization of all works in Si’pelah canyon show that Qaleh Sam has been a security residency of a high-grade person. The analysis of these monument in the regional context indicated that it has been built based on political and security objectives in a mountainous situation, with the creation of several military structures around it. Architectural elements, scattered pottery on surface, and stucco decorations used in the building show that Qale Sam was constructed in the late Sassanid period and the early Islamic centuries.

Subsistence Economy of the Late Neolithic Society of Tepe Khaleseh

Hamid Reza Valipour; Hekmatollah Mollasalehi; Artism Bakhtiyarvand Bakhtiary; Seyedeh Masoumeh Fazeli; Jade Whitlam; Anna Gręzak

Volume 15, Issue 1 , April 2023, , Pages 325-353

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2022.309355.142921

Abstract

One of the most important subjects regarding the Neolithic period is the change of the subsistence economy in the societies of this period compared to the previous periods. The most ... Read More

Maritime Trade Between Iran and China in the First to Tenth Centuries AH based on the Excavated Pottery from the Persian Gulf Region

Tayebe Rahimi; Hassan Karimiyan; Kazem Omidi

Volume 17, Issue 1 , June 2025, , Pages 327-354

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2023.364689.143229

Abstract

AbstractEvidence has shown that the history of communication between the people of Iran and China, to the formation of powerful empires of two lands, goes back long before the rise ... Read More AbstractEvidence has shown that the history of communication between the people of Iran and China, to the formation of powerful empires of two lands, goes back long before the rise of Islam. Attested by textual sources and archeological documents, the experience of successful communication between the two countries continued even after the fall of the Sassanid dynasty. Historical reports of the 7th to the 16th century AD provide important information about the ups and downs of relations between the two countries. The recovery of their communication processes has shown that a mutual or double-sided history has resulted in a two-sided outcome. According to these reports, the process of communication contains four stages (Fig. 3). However, this has been put aside by several archeological researchers, who directly find evidence of early communication from the discovered documents, which is far from their actual understanding. and archaeology having Cultural findings examined with a question-oriented behavior, we are looking for this concept, so that by relying on pottery findings, can the question of “To what extent do the chronology of pottery findings emphasize the process of dealings and its turbulence?” can be answered? To answer this question, the results and conclusions of investigation and studies of pottery findings in the ancient sites of this region have been used. The findings of the research showed that although the historical reports explicitly in some cases emphasize the complete cancellation of relations or its indirectness, but the chronology of the study of pottery finds in the Persian Gulf region shows a continuous trend in their import. And the result emphasizes the integrity of the information, especially the accuracy in the chronology of pottery findings and their quantitative study.Keywords: Archeology, Persian Gulf, Maritime Trade, Siraf, Celadon Pottery. 1. IntroductionAlthough Chinese sources have mentioned a political relationship between from 649 to 745 CE (Park, 2012:6-7), the opportunity of restoration of land trade between the Umayyads and the Tang government did not arise. At the same time, because of the Battle of Talas, the history of the two societies entered a new phase and the sea route inevitably replaced the land route. In Fig. 6, the beginning and end of these periods can be seen according to the dynasties that came to power in Iran and China, as well as the period of prosperity of each of the commercial centers in the Persian Gulf region and imported ceramics into these centers. According to Table 3, which shows the classification and chronology of the potteries, six types of porcelains have been identified as imported pottery at the same time (649 to 745 CE), considering that the number of these porcelains is limited and their distribution is not widespread in the entire region, determining their real date is unclear and cannot be mentioned as the official beginning of the pottery trade. 2. DiscussionAccording to the evidence of the eighth century CE, sea travel in the Indian Ocean became the dominant method of direct and indirect communication between China and the Islamic World (Fig. 1). This alternation occurred simultaneously with the transfer of the capital to Baghdad, which was connected to Basra and the Persian Gulf through the Euphrates River. At this time (745 to 867 CE), the Abbasid government improved its relationship with the Tang government. But with Huang Chao’s rebellion, there was a long-term gap in direct long-distance maritime trade from 878 to 961 CE (Vosoughi,2017) causing trade to shift to Malay ports (Schottenhammer & 蕭婦, 2016: 137). In the Persian Gulf Region, Basra became less important due to a lack of proper management in development, population increase, and numerous unrests. The coins found at Siraf are a reminder of the increase in trade in the ninth century CE. At the same time, the Tang government started trading porcelains as goods (Guy,1990:9). The Belitung shipwreck is a clear example of the volume of Changsha pottery shipments at this period of time (Schottenhammer & 蕭婦, 2016: 151). Although the rebellion in China brought about instability and a decrease in direct relations, considerable volumes of imported ceramics have also been discovered at Siraf from this time period. The classification and chronology of the potteries of this site and the samples collected from the south of Iran show sixteen types of potteries (Table 3).The third period (961 to about 1253 CE) happened after a recession. From the beginning of the fourth century and following the division of the Islamic World, the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt and Iranian governments in Iran began to rule. The people of Siraf were still playing a role in trade during this period. After a successful experience, this port went into decline and Kish quickly assumed the role of Siraf. Sohar and the port of Aden were under the control and rule of the Fatimids to obtain profits from trade (Vosoughi, 2017). At the same time, due to the Sriwijaya’s rule in the Strait of Malacca, direct communication with Chinese ports was disconnected. This process improved with the establishment of the Song Dynasty, and the kings of this dynasty made many facilities to encourage maritime trade (Medley, 1975:32). At this time, the Chinese government increased production for export and determined the flow of trade (Harrisson, 2003:99), encouraging the pottery trade to create balance in the trading business specially after 1111 CE (Guy, 1990:9). The classification and chronology of pottery types in the site of the Persian Gulf region (Table 3) shows sixteen types of imported pottery, which is a reminder of the encouragement of pottery trade during this era.The process of dealings underwent major changes in the beginning of the thirteenth century AD with the formation of Mongol power and the occupation of China and Iran by Genghis and his successors. At this time, local governments played a special role in the process. Unlike Kish, Hormuz became a regional power and unlike Siraf, it became an independent base. In China, the Ming government replaced the Yuan Dynasty. Nevertheless, it still brought about the expansion of trade. These trans-regional connections changed with the arrival of the raiding Portuguese in the sixteenth century CE. Archeological studies show strong evidence of the volume of pottery imports in this period. The collection collected from Hormuz provides important information about the pottery trade in the second half of the seventh century later, between China and this region presented (Williamson, 1973: 56, m3, Morgan,1991:67). This date coincides with Zheng He’s trips to Hormuz (Meicun & Zhang, 2015:417), where coins were given as gifts by him. The samples obtained from Bahrain and Al-Qatif are reminders of this subject (Cribb and Potts, 1996:109). However, after his travels, there was a break until the presence of the Portuguese (Zhang, 2018:74). During this period, Chinese participation in the maritime trade of the Indian Ocean declined or did not exist at all (Lo, 1958:337-340). This decline may be due to the sea ban policy of the early Ming Dynasty, which was accompanied by great stagnation after 1407 AD. By the end of this century, China’s manufacturing industries were in severe decline, this is when the porcelain trade changed from celadon to blue and white potteries (Zhang, 2018:74). 3. ConclusionEvidence suggests that historical accounts at times emphasize either a complete reversal or an indirect nature of commercial transactions. These shifts have had a direct impact on ceramic production in China, on patterns of export, the volume and variety of monetary exchanges, and even on the distribution of goods across the Persian Gulf region because of changing trade centers. Archaeological investigations have demonstrated that, although the demand for ceramics in this reciprocal exchange was largely unidirectional, ceramics remain the most reliable material evidence for reconstructing the processes of maritime trade. The data derived from ceramic finds can serve to confirm, challenge, or refine certain historical narratives, depending on their textual character. The chronological sequence of ceramic types rarely shows a clear break in importation, suggesting the need for further integrated and systematic research across the region particularly in light of the information presented in Figure 6.

Site 089 Cham-Shir, A Settlement From the Middle and Late Islamic Period in the Southern Zagros

Mojtaba Safari; Hedayat allah kalvari Janaki; Narjes Heydari; Javad Rajabi Chashani,

Volume 17, Issue 1 , June 2025, , Pages 355-382

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2025.378929.143276

Abstract

AbstractKohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad are located in the Southern Zagros, which contains valuable information about settelmeents with a nomadic livelihood and semi-temporary agricultural ... Read More AbstractKohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad are located in the Southern Zagros, which contains valuable information about settelmeents with a nomadic livelihood and semi-temporary agricultural during the Islamic era, especially the middle and late Islamic centuries. Cham-Shir area in Dogonbadan city informs us about the settlements of this period. Site 089 of Cham-Shir, according to the architectural structures and the type of pottery obtained from the excavation of 2022, is a settlement characterized by pastoral nomadism with agriculture. Favorable geographical conditions and special natural complications, such as the passage of the Zohreh River and green slopes that better affect the surrounding environment in the second half of the year, make the studied area a favorable place for nomadic communities with vertical displacement. The site’s excavation includes architectural and pottery data that, when analyzed, show a close relationship with this way of life. In this site’s architectural structure, several spaces were created for human habitation to place items related to this lifestyle and one or two larger structures attached to the living space to keep livestock. Along with the architectural collection, pottery finds were found which, according to their form, their quality of construction and possible use, further confirm the relationship of these architectural collections with the nomadic style. Site 089 includes five separate building units with wide dimensions, revealed during the excavation in two units with different architectural structures using the same raw materials and construction techniques. In these architectural units, all kinds of Istakhr-type pottery, pseudo-prehistoric pottery, glazed pottery, and simple pottery of the Islamic period were found, similar to the examples obtained from Fars, Khuzestan, Kerman, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari. The study of architectural units led to the relative chronology of the site.Keywords: Cham-Shir, Site 089, Middle and Late Islamic Period, Nomadism and Semi-temporary Agriculture. 1. IntroductionSite 089, situated on the slopes of Cham Cheru Mountain within a narrow valley, occupies a key position in advancing our understanding of Islamic-era settlement patterns. Its strategic location linked via a gravel road to Gachsaran and the surrounding plains and villages of Babamonir, Mishan, and Mahor offers critical insights into the region’s nomadic lifeways. The presence of the Zahra River and verdant slopes, particularly during the second half of the year, has rendered the area favorable for seasonal transhumance. Due to the poor quality and stony nature of the soil in this sedimentary zone, conditions have historically been unsuitable for the development of permanent agricultural villages, a pattern that appears consistent with past land use.The study of this area highlights the richness of nomadic cultural heritage and associated settlement traditions. Three major features underscore the significance of Site 089:1. Its proximity to Cham Cheru Mountain, particularly the presence of architectural remains on the summit; 2. The distribution of cemeteries and arched stone structures scattered both within and around the site; 3. The notable concentration of stone-cut architectural elements, indicating the area’s distinct role within the broader context of nomadic heritage in the region.These attributes position Site 089 as a valuable case for modeling patterns of nomadic settlement and for guiding future archaeological investigations. The present study aims to establish the relative chronology of architectural features and to develop a typology of pottery uncovered during excavation. Key research questions include:• To what extent do the site’s architectural remains correspond with known settlement strategies and chronological frameworks? Which historical periods can be assigned to the ceramic assemblage based on comparative analysis? Can architectural and ceramic evidence at the site illuminate patterns of interaction between the Cham-Shir region and adjacent areas?To address these questions, the study employed a combination of fieldwork, archival research, descriptive-analytical methods, and comparative analyses. Following excavation, the architectural structures were reconstructed in plan form to support the dating of architectural phases and contextualize the associated ceramic materials. Pottery finds were then classified and subjected to typological analysis and comparative chronology, allowing for broader cross-regional comparisons. 2. DiscussionNomadic life and animal husbandry result from human interaction with the surrounding environment; in this way of life, we see the regular movement of human groups within a single ecological territory. Although this lifestyle seems very simplistic at first glance, a regular and specific socio-economic system within its divisions should be studied separately from single-settlement, rural and urban units. However, very little evidence of this way of life remains. The necessary awareness of this lifestyle depends on accepting it as an independent entity with certain remaining material characteristics. One of the most important indicators is the architectural culture of these tribes, which took on a special form after establishing their settlements. The characteristic features of these architectural structures are their location next to springs and rivers, an ecological space with pastures and meadows around permanent settlements, location at higher altitudes or on the edge of natural hills, and the use of local materials such as stone. This situation leads to the formation of the cultural landscape of the nomads. These establishments have a periodic geometric pattern, mostly built based on the slope of the land, security and visibility of the area. These structures’ overall form and structure are a function of their function and how they are used. One of the most complex issues under investigation is identifying the distinguishing features of the architectural structures and the factors influencing the formation of their cultural landscape. These factors encompass the physical, cultural, and social dimensions of the society in which they developed. A clear example of this can be seen in the construction of buildings on sloped terrain, necessitating the creation of terraces, the use of minimally processed materials such as porcelain stoneware, the internal division of space without partition walls, and the presence of specific entrance arrangements. These structures exhibit hierarchical patterns that appear closely linked to the socio-spatial organization of nomadic communities. 3. ConclusionIn the flatter areas, architectural planning involved the use of higher-quality materials and more regular geometric layouts. In contrast, as one moves further up the slope, structures tend to vary more in size and shape, their architectural integrity diminishes, and in some instances, natural features were used as enclosures. A significant feature of these settlements is the positioning of residential units along gentle slopes, providing wide visibility and control over the surrounding landscape a strategic consideration in nomadic settlement planning.The ceramic assemblage from the site corresponds well with the architectural phases and dates primarily from the middle to the late centuries of the Islamic period. Notably, Istakhr-type ceramics characteristic of the middle Islamic centuries have parallels with contemporaneous sites in Fars Province, which is likely their place of origin. The assemblage includes glazed, unglazed, and plain wares that are datable to the same general timeframe and are commonly found at Islamic-period sites across Iran. Additionally, the site yielded pseudo-prehistoric ceramics, which also date from the middle to late Islamic centuries. These are comparable to pottery discovered in regions such as Fars, Khuzestan, and Kerman (particularly the Narmashir Plain settlements), as well as in several other areas across the Iranian plateau.

Characterizing the Technology and Structure of Celadon Wares from the City of Gour; An Archaeometrical Approach

Majid Montazer zohouri; Remy Chapoulie; Mohammadamin Emami

Volume 17, Issue 1 , June 2025, , Pages 383-406

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2024.363663.143227

Abstract

Abstractuse of high-energy synchrotron rays in order to identify and characterize historical and cultural materials as accurately as possible, usually in a non-destructive manner and ... Read More Abstractuse of high-energy synchrotron rays in order to identify and characterize historical and cultural materials as accurately as possible, usually in a non-destructive manner and with very high accuracy, has become a suitable method to identify the elemental composition of archaeological materials in very small quantities. Furthermore, cathodoluminescence rays can lead to better identification of the chemical composition and phase changes in the historical samples. Cathodoluminescence rays generated from the crystalline compounds lead to new mineralogical interpretations in order to better understand the manufacturing technology and the origin of historical material. In line with the archaeological investigation and studies conducted during the years 1392-1393, a significant number of celadon ceramics, and engraved and glazed pottery were found at the site of Gour. In this research, seven potsherds were examined using conventional laboratory methods and high-energy X-ray beams produced in synchrotron and microscopic cathodoluminescence. These studies were carried out to identify the chemical properties of these ceramics and how they were manufactured. In line with these studies, it was found that these ceramics were made of kaolinite clay and baked at a temperature of ca. 1200 degrees Celsius in two manufacturing stages, and specific proportions of raw materials Si/Al were used in the chemical composition of their body and glaze. This proportion and the method of firing and the condition of the kiln were proof of the coherence and strength of the celadon, which is identical to the temperature interval of the formation of the crystalline phases between the body and the glaze, so-called reaction phase-interphase area.Keywords: The City of Gour, Celadon Ware, Photon Rays, Synchrotron, Cathodoluminescence. 1. IntroductionThe environmental, economic, industrial, and spatial characteristics of the city have been the subject of several detailed studies (Huff, 1970; Huff, 1973; Huff, 2008). The city exhibits a circular urban plan approximately 2 kilometers in diameter, enclosed by two concentric mudbrick ramparts and a surrounding moat. It is connected to the surrounding plain by two perpendicular streets intersecting at the city’s center and features four main gates. Portions of the circular fortification are still preserved, including large governmental and religious structures situated in the city center.Despite the limited number of archaeological excavations conducted in the area, these investigations have produced valuable findings. The most significant research has been carried out by Dietrich Huff and colleagues (Huff and Gignoux, 1978; Karimian and Montazer-Zohouri, 2014). Ceramic sherds represent the most important category of archaeological finds at the site. Research indicates that the ceramics from Ardashir Khurrah date from the late Arsacid and Sasanian periods through the early, middle, and late Islamic periods, spanning approximately the 7th to the 16th/17th centuries CE (Karimian and Montazer-Zohouri, 2014).Studies focusing on the cephalina (citadel) of Ardashir Khurrah have further clarified the chronological range of pottery production in the city. These analyses suggest that ceramic material from the site spans from the late Parthian and Sasanian periods through to the early Islamic centuries and into the middle and late Islamic periods (approximately the 1st through 11th centuries AH / 7th through 17th centuries CE) (Karimian and Montazer-Zohouri, 2014). As such, the ceramic assemblage from Ardashir Khurrah constitutes a critical source for understanding the cultural and historical development of this important ancient city.One of the key types is the celadon wares imported from China. Iran and China had cultural and commercial relations from the pre-Islam period; many archaeological finds indicate this interaction. The China-Iran relationship lasted into the Islamic period; celadon wares are one of the most important sources of evidence on the two commercial cooperation between the two countries. Celadon had been known as a commercial Chinese product in the Islamic lands (Emami et al., 2019). This ware type has a frit body covered with revitalized glaze in the green to brown color range. Celadon ware is a common type in a large number of Islamic sites, distributed across the Iranian Plateau via the main and secondary trade roads from the 7th and 8th to the 16th-17th centuries. The celadon wares found in Ardshirkhoreh are in the green and grey color range and date back to the 13th-14th and the 15th-17th centuries. Similar types have been found at Siraf, Kish, and Rab-e Rashidi (Morgan, 1991, Takahito, 1988). Most celadons are found in the citadel (Arg) and along the eastern street in Ardshirkhowreh. The Chinese celadons have been imported to the area by the southern ports like Siraf and then scattered in the hinterlands city like Ardshirkhowreh. 2. Material and MethodsNew insights on the chemical composition of the stoneware pottery with bluish green glaze so called celadon from Ardeshir-Khore, 4th century AC (Iran) have been achieved by SR-based X-ray diffraction analysis and cathodoluminescence microscopy. Techniques based on synchrotron radiation have been widely applied in archaeology. High-energy synchrotron radiation makes it possible to characterize the composition of the newly formed minute crystalline phases within the matrix of the pottery. At the same time, cathodoluminescence imaging provides new insight into mineralogical criteria that are not visible with the usual optical microscopy approach. However, the tiny crystals which are revealed, can be considered as real markers for the knowledge of important features such as the highest firing temperatures reached at this time. 3. DiscussionCeladon wares are structurally a unique pottery type with numerous chronologically sensitive characteristics. These materials are indications of maritime and land trade from the Far East and China to Iran (Huang et al., 2020, Molera i Marimon et al., 2022). In this regard, the history of the emergence of Celadon in Iran dates back to the Sassanid era and then the peak period of the use of this type of historical pottery in Iran to the Ilkhanid era and the cities of the Persian Gulf: Kerman, Sistan, Jiroft, Kashan, Ray and Qazvin are among the important places for the existence and production of this type of pottery in the Iranian Plateau (Huang et al., 2020, Molera i Marimon et al., 2022, Amirhajloo and Sedighian, 2023, Barnes et al., 2010).The exact characteristics of the geo-chemical fingerprint and phase composition of the primary clay paste is reflected by the re-crystallizations through firing as an important criterion for the “chaîne opératoire” in ceramic technology of the past (Tite et al., 2012). The determinination of newly formed minute crystalline phases by synchrotron XRD is essential, since identification of the reaction products during the firing of primary clay, sometimes cannot be well clarified by routine methods (Emami et al., 2021). Multidisciplinary methods are crucial for determining the primary clay base, as well as the manufacturing processes of these prestigious objects (Cheng et al., 2002). Synchrotron based XRD results enable the characterization of both mineralogical constituents of a pottery and its fabrication by identifying high temperature phases and defining kiln atmosphere conditions. The samples were studied earlier by cathodoluminescence imaging to localize the specific zones of recrystallization and the newly formed crystals. Crystal growth and its statement is revealed by means of the cathodoluminescence color of the minerals and will be interpreted as a generation of high temperature silica and calcium phases such as mullite and anorthite. 4. ConclusionThe composition and structure of the celadon were first observed using the common methods of polarizing microscopy, and then through using high-energy beams of synchrotron and Low-energy rays of cathodoluminescence. Characteristically the results indicate the use of illitic soil with different amounts of carbonate compounds. The cooking temperature of the salads is about 1270 degrees Celsius based on the high temperature phases of the sherds. Moreover, the celadon are made in two stages: first, the body is fired and then the glaze is put on before the body is completely sintered. SR-XRD and CL microscopy have clarified insights into the characterization of high temperature phases in the body and phase-interphase area between the body and the celadon glaze. Anorthite occurred mostly in interphase zones between body and glaze. Over high firing temperature of the celadons (ca. 1200°C), formation of high temperature phases such as mullite and other aluminosilicates, might be notable in association with SiO2/Al2O3 wt% ratios.

Analysis of Neolithic Pottery Discovered from the Mughan Steppe within the Context of the Neolithic Culture of the Qarasu-Mughan Steppe (East Azerbaijan)

Ghader Ebrahimi; Seyed Ruhollah Mohammadi

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 08 January 2026

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2026.391523.143340

Abstract

In the field of prehistoric archaeology studies in Iran, East Azerbaijan is considered one of the unknown, obscure, and neglected regions. Despite the high environmental potential and ... Read More

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The style of residential architectural spaces and the public hall of the Ghadkodan site during the Parthian period, Piranshahr Plain, West Azerbaijan

Afrasiab Garavand; Mahnaz Sharifi; Fatemeh Malekpur

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 08 January 2026

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2026.402003.143375

Abstract

تپه اهرنجان یکی از شاخص‌ترین محوطه‌های حوضه دریاچه ارومیه است که با عنایت به مختصات منحصر به فرد فرهنگی ... Read More تپه اهرنجان یکی از شاخص‌ترین محوطه‌های حوضه دریاچه ارومیه است که با عنایت به مختصات منحصر به فرد فرهنگی که دارد، نقش مهمی در ادبیات باستان‌شناسی منطقه ایفا نموده است، چرا که اطلاعات ما در خصوص نوسنگی این منطقه‌ی بسیار مهم، ناشناخته باقی مانده و اطلاعات بسیار محدودی در این بازه مهم زمانی وجود دارد. اهرنجان را می‌بایست فرهنگ خاص مختص شمال‌غرب در نظر بگیریم. اهرنجان دارای انباشت ضخیمی از دوره نوسنگی است که حدود 10 متر لایه فرهنگی با نه فاز استقراری را در برمی‌گیرد. هدف از این مقاله تبیین توالی فرهنگی تپه و پاسخ به این پرسش مهم است که آیا اهرنجان دارای شواهد نوسنگی بدون سفال نیز هست یا استقرار صرفا در دوره نوسنگی با سفال، صورت پذیرفته است؟ نتایج این پژوهش منجر به کشف تدفین دسته جمعی انسانی داخل فضای مسکونی و شناسایی چاله کوره‌های حرارتی شد که در نوع خود منحصر به فرد بوده و در نقاط دیگر گزارش نشده‌اند. مواد فرهنگی اهرنجان مشابهت نزدیکی علی‌الخصوص با جارمو از یک سو و همچنین با دیگر محوطه‏های همزمان از جمله حاجی‌فیروز و یانیک تپه در حوضه دریاچه ارومیه از سوی دیگر دارد. اما علی‌رغم برخی تشابهات، تفاوت‌های بنیادین با حاجی‌فیروز دارد، علی رغم اینکه همه محوطه‌های نوسنگی هم افق با یکدیگرند، اما تفاوت‌های ساختاری را نیز دارند. با عنایت به مواد فرهنگی اهرنجان باید اذعان نمود که این محوطه در چهارچوب فرهنگ حاجی فیروز که پیشتر معرفی شده، نمی‌گنجد و شاخصه‌های متفاوت‌تری نسبت به حاجی‌فیرور و دیگر محوطه‌های هم افق داراست. نتیجه این پژوهش نشان داد آنچه که در این مقال مدنظر است اینکه اهرنجان مختصات فرهنگی خاص خودش را دارد. در این دوره همگونی فرهنگی وجود نداشته و ما با تنوع فرهنگی و نه همسانی فرهنگی مواجه هستیم.

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Village Period Cultivation of Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) at Chega Sofla, Southwestern Iran: New evidence from the Southeastern Fertile Crescent

Abbas Moghaddam

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 08 February 2026

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2026.409517.143397

Abstract

The origin and early dispersal of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) remain difficult to reconstruct due to the absence of extant wild progenitors and the limited preservation of archaeobotanical ... Read More

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Volume 17 (2025)

Volume 16 (2024)

Volume 15 (2023)

Volume 14 (2022)

Volume 13 (2021)

Volume 12 (2020)

Volume 11 (2019)

Volume 10 (2018)

Volume 9 (2017)

Volume 8 (2016)

Volume 7 (2015)

Volume 6 (2014)

Volume 5 (2013)

Volume 4 (2012)

Volume 3 (2011)

Volume 1 (2009)

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