Journal of Archaeological Studies

Abstract Abstract
The Shahneh Poshte Cemetery, located in the Babol district and encompassing approximately 11 hectares, represents one of the richest Iron Age sites in both Mazandaran and Iran. Situated in the foothills of the central Alborz Mountains, the site was excavated over two field seasons in 2018 and 2019. These investigations resulted in the identification of 39 analyzable burials, along with a diverse assemblage of associated grave goods, including pottery vessels, ornaments, decorative items, and weapons. This study seeks to establish both relative and absolute chronologies through comparative analysis of selected artifacts, supplemented by radiocarbon dating of human remains and charcoal samples. In addition, it addresses questions concerning cultural interactions between Shahneh Poshte and both intra-regional sites within Mazandaran and extra-regional sites across the Iranian Plateau. The funerary assemblages indicate that the majority of burials and material culture correspond closely to local Mazandaran stylistic traditions. However, certain objects exhibit affinities with broader trans-regional formal styles characteristic of areas such as Gilan, Gorgan, the central Iranian Plateau, and northwestern Iran during the late second and first millennia BC. Radiocarbon analysis of five human skeletons, yielding dates from the late second millennium to the second half of the first millennium BC, corroborates the relative chronology established through typological comparison. On the basis of combined relative and absolute chronological assessments of the 39 burials, 29 graves can be assigned to Iron Age I–III, while the remaining 10 are attributable to the late Achaemenid–early Parthian period (Iron IV). As at other significant Iron Age cemeteries, pottery constitutes the principal diagnostic category for establishing relative chronology at Shahneh Poshte. The range and typology of ceramic vessels demonstrate strong stylistic and cultural connections with contemporaneous sites within Mazandaran and across Iran more broadly.
Keywords: Shahneh Poshte Cemetery, Relative and Absolute Chronology, Iron Age, Human Burials, Funerary Objects.
 
1. Introduction
The Iron Age and its early stages are among the most questionable and complex archaeological topics in Iran and fundamental questions about it are still being raised after years of archaeological excavations. From the beginning until now, the focus of research on the Iron Age in Iran has been mainly on the Central Plateau, Zagros and especially northwestern regions, which was first established by Dyson’s extensive excavations at Hasanlu and the study of other important sites in the Solduz and Oshnavieh plains such as Yanik Tepe, Geoy Tepe, Haftvan, Dinkhah and Aqrab Tepe (see Dyson, 1965a; Dyson and Muscarella. 1989). In other words, other problems related to study of the Iron Age in Iran are dating, presenting a chronology and dividing it into three stages which was previously done based on the Hasanlu project. Now, with our increasing knowledge of different regions of Iran, the need to review the chronology and the way in which the Bronze Age cultures ended, the transition process and the beginning of the Iron Age is felt more than ever. However, studies related to Iron Age cultures in different regions of Iran have not been conducted in the same way, and many regions including northern slopes of the Alborz and the plains of the southern margin of Caspian Sea are full of ambiguities about processes of the beginning of the Iron Age and its developmental stages. In this regard and based on a study of one of the Iron Age societies in northern Iran, the present study attempts to address the questions of this important field by providing absolute dating of five human burials and two charcoal samples from the settlement area, as well as a comparative study of the cultural materials of the Shahneh Poshte cemetery and their comparative studies within the Iron Age chronology of Mazandaran and Iran. In other words, the combination of absolute and relative dating is one of the most advanced projects in explaining the chronology of Iron Age of Mazandaran and northern Iran, which will partially address the challenges of the limited knowledge of this period in this field and will answer questions about the absolute and relative date and sequence of use of this site, the chronological relationship of the burials of site with each other, as well as explaining the chronology of Iron Age and historical period of Mazandaran and some cultural regions of Iran.
 
2. Discussion
One of the most important aspects of the Shahneh Poshte cemetery study, which distinguishes it among the many Iron Age sites in the Mazandaran region and Iran, is the absolute carbon-14 dating studies on a number of human remains and cultural materials from this cemetery. A total of 7 absolute dating samples, including 5 human burial remains and 2 charcoal samples from two settlement trenches, clearly show that 39 burials at this site are located in the Iron I to Achaemenid-Early Parthian period (Iron IV), such that burial number 3 is related to Iron I (1008-1216 BCE/1192-1047 BCE), burial number 8 is related to late Iron I and early Iron II (917-1108 BCE/936-1043 BCE), burial number 35 is related to the Iron II period (834-925 BCE/822-983 BCE), burial number 18 is related to the late Achaemenid/Iron IV period (338 BCE) and finally burial number 20 belongs to late Achaemenid-Early Parthian period (Iron IV/4th to 2nd centuries BCE). In addition to the absolute dating of human burials, also two absolute dating samples were extracted from trench 7 and contexts 4 and 5 with settlement evidence which are very valuable in their own right. Therefore, two charcoal samples from Context 4 dated 215±30 BCE and Context 5 dated 160±30 BCE in Trench 7 showed that the Shahneh Poshte cemetery was used simultaneously as a cemetery and settlement space after the end of Iron III during the Achaemenid, Seleucid and early Parthian periods (in line with burial findings of Trench 6). Also, comparative studies for relative dating including the morphology of the body and handle and the color of the vessels in forms such as gray, red, brown, red-orange jars and jugs, bowls, vessels with solar bodies and handles, milk jugs, tripod vessels as well as weapons, ornaments and some structures of the graves, in line with the absolute dates of the site, exactly complement the chronological framework of Shahneh Poshte and all can be dated to the Iron Ages I, II, III and finally IV (late Achaemenid to early Parthian), generally the 12th to 3rd centuries BC. In fact, these objects are clearly comparable with contemporaneous intra-regional sites in Mazandaran province as well as other regions including the Gorgan Plain, Gilan, central plateau and northwest Iran. Based on the archaeological evidence, it seems that during the Iron I-III periods and then Iron IV (Achaemenid to early Parthian period), there is a great deal of similarity between Iron Age sites in large parts of Iran. Among these, Iron Age of Mazandaran has the greatest similarity with the Gilan region sites such as Qaleh-e-Kuti I and II, Kalvarz, Meryan, Tandovin, Tol, as well as with the Central Plateau region with sites such as Sagzabad and Qeytariyeh.
 
3. Conclusion
As one of the large and very rich cemeteries in the central Alborz basin in northern Iran, the Shahneh Poshte cemetery is an important site for a case study on the cultural trends and cultures of the Iron Age in northern Iran and the Mazandaran region. It can answer many questions about the processes of the region’s entry into the Iron Age, including socio-cultural changes, economic and nutritional patterns, burial traditions and practices, social classifications and common class systems, structures of graves and cultural-commercial connections within and outside the region through the study of burial data. Initial studies of the cultural materials of this site in the form of 39 burials and settlement contexts, as well as other surface artifacts obtained during two seasons of archaeological excavations indicate abundant typological connections with findings from neighboring Iron Age sites in Mazandaran and other parts of Iran, just as a major part of the chronology and sequence of the Iron Age in different regions of Iran is based on relative and comparative chronology with other regions. In summary, the diverse and diverse collection of graves in the Shahneh Poshte cemetery, based on absolute dating studies (5 samples of human skeletal and 2 charcoal samples from settlement contexts) as well as relative and comparative dating with intra-regional areas of Mazandaran and neighboring areas like the Gorgan Plain, Gilan, Semnan and the central plateau (Tehran, Rey, Qazvin, Karaj and Kashan) indicates a long-term history of use of site from the late 2nd millennium BCE to the early second half of the 1st millennium BCE. More precisely, the people of northern foothills of the Alborz mountain range in the south of the Babol region of Mazandaran used this space and place to bury their dead from the Iron Age I, probably continuously, to the Achaemenid, Seleucid and early Parthian periods (Iron IV) and have used their burial methods and traditions for several generations. The set of 7 absolute dating samples along with the study of dateable burial objects reveals the cultural and social trends of Shahneh Poshteh people society and thus makes a significant contribution to the reconstruction and compilation of the Iron Age chronology of Mazandaran and Iran.

Abstract Abstract
Zoroaster is one of the most prominent and influential figures in the history of ancient Iran. Despite the importance of comprehending Zoroaster’s life history toward a better understanding of the cultural development processes of Iranian society, a variety of proposed dates from the Neolithic period to the Achaemenid period testifies to the difficulty of conducting research on this issue. The variety of proposed dates that had been derived from classical sources, Pahlavi texts and literature of the Islamic period were later regulated by linguistic studies and archaeological data. In this research, based on linguistic studies, an attempt has been made to examine and evaluate the archaeological data of the second and first millennia BCE of the Central Asia, with the aim of verifying the feasibility of their connection with the Zoroastrian religion. In this regard, the raised question is: to what extent can we establish a connection between the developments of the second millennium BCE in the eastern Iranian milieu and the emergence of Zoroaster? Moreover, what information does the archaeological data of the Iron Age of Central Asia provides about Zoroastrianism? In order to answer the proposed questions, library research methods (encompassing archaeological field reports) with a descriptive-analytical approach have been used. The results of this research show that during the late Bactrian-Margiana culture and the beginning of the Iron Age, certain cultural developments were taking place simultaneously, which could be evaluated and interpreted in the context of Zoroastrianism based on linguistic studies and archaeological data. The Bactrian-Margiana and Early Iron Age cultures had declined and a new culture with different socio-cultural traditions had emerged. The similarity of the class system of this period with the system reflected in the Gathas, shows that the idea that the Gathas’ society is the same as the Early Iron Age society of Central Asia seems logical and also emphasizes the religious developments aspect. It is possible to connect the aforementioned developments in the context of South Central Asia with the emergence of a new religion and prophet. A prophet who probably appeared in the east of the Iranian milieu in ca. 1700-1500 BCE and became the founder of one of the oldest and most influential religions of the ancient world.
Keywords: Zoroaster, Iron Age, Central Asia, Burial Custom, Fire Temple.
 
1. Introduction
One of the most complex issues in Iranian studies concerns the wide range of speculations regarding the life and chronological setting of Zoroaster. An examination of classical sources (Pliny, N.H. 30.1.3; Plutarch, On Isis and Osiris, 46–7; Laertius, I.1.2), Zoroastrian religious texts (Le Livre d’Ardā Vīrāz, 1.1–4; Vizidagiha-i Zādisparam, 25.12; Bundahišn, 22.240), and works by authors of the Islamic period (Masʿūdī, 1966: 415; Bīrūnī, 2010: 56; Mojmal al-tawāriḵ, 2010: 14) reveals that proposed dates for Zoroaster’s lifetime range from ca. 6000 BCE to the Achaemenid period. This question assumed a more systematic form with the linguistic analysis of the Gathas and their comparative study with the Rigveda (Boyce, 1979: 18; Gnoli, 1980: 174–178; Kreyenbroek, 2016: 13–25). If Zoroaster’s origins are to be located in the eastern regions of Greater Iran, as suggested by linguistic studies of the Gathas (Amouzgar & Tafazzoli, 1991: 21, 111), then archaeological data from Central Asia, considered alongside linguistic evidence, may contribute to informed hypotheses concerning his historical context. Although archaeological research has yielded limited direct evidence linking specific cultural traditions to religious doctrines, socio-political transformations during the transition from the Bactrian-Margiana Archaeological Complex to the Yaz culture may, in some cases, be interpreted in light of evolving religious ideologies. The advanced urban society of the Bactrian-Margiana culture, characterized by complex social and economic hierarchies and long-distance trade networks, declined between 1700 and 1500 BCE and was succeeded by the Yaz culture, with its attendant structural changes, around 1500–1300 BCE. In this later cultural horizon, villages replaced urban centers, and intricate urban hierarchies gave way to simpler socio-economic systems based on rural agriculture and pastoralism. Concurrently, ceramic traditions and mortuary practices underwent significant modification, with burial customs assuming a more standardized and integrated form. Given the close association between mortuary practice and religious belief, the departure from typical Bactrian-Margiana burial traditions and the emergence of relatively uniform mortuary customs under the Yaz culture suggest the possibility of religious transformation across southern Central Asia. Moreover, certain burial practices of this period appear to anticipate later Zoroastrian traditions. Notable examples include (1) the disappearance of inhumation graves and (2) the increasing practice of exposing corpses in open air. The discovery of architectural and material evidence interpreted as related to fire temples within the Yaz cultural sphere (Pidaev, 1974: 33–35; Askarov, 1982; Boucharlat, 2014: 10) further strengthens the argument for a tangible connection between this cultural milieu and emerging Zoroastrian traditions. In the present study, an effort has been made to reassess the historical context of Zoroaster through a critical examination of classical sources, Zoroastrian religious literature, and Islamic-period historiography, in conjunction with linguistic scholarship and archaeological data. The research proceeds from the assumption that the extensive social, economic, and cultural transformations observable during the transition from the Bactrian-Margiana culture to the Yaz culture—and the subsequent association of the Yaz cultural horizon with Zoroastrianism—reflect processes of religious development, including the adaptation and transformation of certain religious elements inherited from the Bactrian-Margiana tradition.

2. The archaeological data
Following the decline of the Bactrian-Margiana Archaeological Complex and the emergence of a cultural horizon characterized by handmade and painted ceramics, diverse mortuary practices became widespread across southern Central Asia, some of which may be interpreted within the framework of later Zoroastrian traditions. (1) In one category, corpses were interred in a relatively simple manner, occasionally wrapped in a shroud-like covering. In certain cases, human bones appear to have shifted after deposition, likely due to decomposition occurring within a confined or covered space. This pattern has been documented at Early Iron Age sites such as Dzharkutan, Kuchuk-tepe, and Dal’verzin, and at Ulug-depe during the Middle Iron Age (Bendezu-Sarmiento & Lhuillier, 2015: 283–284). At Kuchuk-tepe, bodies were placed upon a layer of pebbles (ibid.: 299), a practice reminiscent of the Zoroastrian injunction that a corpse should not come into direct contact with the soil. Evidence for the use of shrouds has also been reported in historical-period Zoroastrian burials in Central Asia (Kurkina, 2005: 62; Baratov, 2013: 33; Mousavinia, 2023: 24–35), continuing into the late Islamic centuries (Azargoshasb, 1969; Mousavinia, 2023: 143–148). (2) A second mortuary tradition involved collective burials, either simultaneous or successive. In some cases, remains were recovered as scattered bone fragments. This practice has been identified at Early Iron Age sites such as Dal’verzin and Dzharkutan (Bendezu-Sarmiento & Lhuillier, 2015: 290–298), and at Geokchik-depe in the sixth and seventh centuries BCE (Lecomte, 2005: 465; Mashkour, 1998: 209). (3) Another category consists of shallow surface graves containing limited human bone fragments, some bearing cut marks. Examples have been documented at Dzharkutan and Dashly 30 (Early Iron Age), at Ulug-depe (Middle Iron Age), and at Edatguly (sixth–seventh centuries BCE) (Bendezu-Sarmiento & Lhuillier, 2015: 283–302). (4) Secondary burial practices have also been recorded, indicating that the Xwaršēd Nigerišn rite was likely performed in open-air contexts before bones were gathered and redeposited in pits, either individually or collectively. This practice has been reported at Dzharkutan (Sellier & Bendezu-Sarmiento, 2013), at Chust and Tujabuguz (Early Iron Age), and at Tepe Zargaran during the Achaemenid period (Bendezu-Sarmiento & Lhuillier, 2015: 297–303). (5) In certain cases, scattered human bone fragments—likely resulting from the performance of Xwaršēd Nigerišn—have been discovered at Early Iron Age sites such as Dal’verzin and Tujabuguz (Bendezu-Sarmiento & Lhuillier, 2015: 303), as well as at Geokchik-depe (Lecomte, 2005: 466). This practice continued from the Early to the Middle Iron Age at Ulug-depe (Bendezu-Sarmiento, 2006) and is also attested in the Achaemenid period at Shortepa (Bendezu-Sarmiento & Lhuillier, 2015: 303).
In addition to burial customs, archaeological evidence interpreted as Zoroastrian fire temples has been reported from Central Asia. Monumental ritual structures first appear in the Bronze Age (Boucharlat, 2014: 10) at sites such as Togolok 21 and Gonur (Sarianidi, 1998) and continue into the Middle Iron Age at Topaz Gala Depe (Wagner, 2014), Tillya Tepe (Sarianidi, 1989), Pachmak Tepe (Pidaev, 1974: 33–35), and Pshaktepa (Askarov, 1982). Although attributing the Bronze Age examples directly to Zoroastrianism remains problematic, consideration of the broader Middle Iron Age context in Central Asia—particularly in conjunction with contemporaneous mortuary traditions—permits a more substantiated discussion of the possible Zoroastrian character of such structures from approximately 1100 BCE onward.
 
3. Conclusion
One of the most complex issues in Iranology concerns the study of Zoroastrianism and the attempt to situate Zoroaster’s lifetime within the vast chronology of ancient Iran. Clarifying this question constitutes a crucial step toward establishing a more precise historical framework, which in turn enables a more accurate evaluation of archaeological data and a deeper understanding of the cultural developments of the period and its aftermath. Although accounts of Zoroaster’s life appear in classical sources, Pahlavi texts, and Islamic-era literature, the first systematic scholarly efforts to reconstruct his historical context were grounded in linguistic analysis. The close linguistic affinity between the Gathas and the Rigveda, together with philological dating, suggests that this oldest portion of the Avesta originated in northeastern Iran and was likely composed around 1700–1500 BCE. Concurrently, archaeological evidence from Central Asia has illuminated additional dimensions of early Zoroastrian traditions. The identification of fire temple structures at sites such as Topaz Gala Depe, Tillya Tepe, Pachmak Tepe, and Pshaktepa, dating to the Middle Iron Age, indicates that 1100 BCE may represent the latest plausible date for Zoroaster’s lifetime. Conversely, the diversity of burial traditions associated with the Xwaršēd Nigerišn rite, attested from approximately 1500 BCE onward, suggests that his historical context may extend several centuries earlier. Notably, this chronological horizon corresponds with linguistic assessments of the Gathas and the dating of their archaic vocabulary.
This period coincides with substantial socio-cultural transformations in Central Asia, some of which may be interpreted in light of evolving religious ideologies. The decline of the Bactrian-Margiana Archaeological Complex and the emergence of the Yaz culture marked a transition from urban centers to village-based settlement patterns, from complex urban hierarchies to simpler rural systems grounded in agriculture and pastoralism, alongside the appearance of new ceramic traditions and increasingly standardized burial practices. The divergence of this emerging culture from Bactrian-Margiana traditions, together with the growing uniformity of mortuary customs, may plausibly reflect processes of religious transformation. Furthermore, parallels between the tripartite social structure reflected in the Gathas and the social organization characteristic of Early Iron Age Central Asia lend support to the argument that the society described in the Gathas corresponds broadly to that archaeological horizon, underscoring the likelihood of significant religious developments during this era. Within this broader South Central Asian context, it is therefore plausible to associate these transformations with the emergence of a new religious movement and its prophetic founder—likely active in the eastern Iranian cultural sphere around 1700–1500 BCE—who would come to be regarded as the originator of one of the most ancient and influential religions of the premodern world.

Abstract Abstract
This study examines and classifies Iron Age pottery from Nay Tappeh, a site in the Gorgan Plain, the historically known region of Hyrcania (Varkaneh). Hyrcania, one of the most significant archaeological regions in the Iranian cultural sphere, has been the research focus for over a century. However, fundamental questions remain, particularly regarding Iron Age pottery’s forms, chronology, and cultural links to the region’s Bronze Age traditions. This article presents a detailed analysis of pottery recovered from rescue excavations at Nay Tappeh, conducted by J. Nokandeh. The study follows a three-stage methodology: classification, analysis, and interpretation. Its primary objective is to explore the relationship between Nay Tappeh’s pottery and Bronze Age Hyrcanian pottery while comparing it with Iron Age pottery from the Gorgan Plain, Dehistan, the Central Plateau, and other Iron Age archaeological regions of Iran. The ceramics from Nay Tappeh have been categorized into 25 main groups, classified under two broad types: open-mouthed and closed-mouthed vessels. These forms exhibit striking similarities with pottery from Archaic Dehistan, North Khorasan, Semnan, Mazandaran, Gilan, and western Iran. Comparative analysis suggests that the pottery of Nay Tappeh dates to the late Iron Age II, Iron Age III, and the early Achaemenid period. Despite gradual changes over time, these pottery forms maintain strong ties to Bronze Age traditions, reflecting a sense of cultural continuity in the region.
Keywords: Hyrcania, Bronze Age, Iron Age, Nay Tappeh, Pottery Classification. 
 
1. Introduction
The region of Varkaneh/Hyrcania (Fig. 1) is one of the most significant archaeological areas within the Iranian cultural sphere. Despite over a century of research, many fundamental questions remain unanswered, particularly regarding the comprehensive classification of Iron Age pottery and its chronological connection to the Bronze Age in the same region.
This article focuses on the classification of pottery recovered from rescue excavations at Nay Tappeh in the Gorgan Plain, conducted by J. Nokandeh. The excavation reached the natural soil layers, uncovering artifacts dating to the Iron Age (Fig. 2).
In archaeology, the study of pottery assemblages typically involves three stages: classification, analysis, and interpretation. While “classification” and “typology” are often used interchangeably, typology is generally considered a more specific form of classification. This study follows these three stages, giving special attention to the continuity of pottery forms from the first half of the second millennium BCE. This focus is driven by the striking similarities between the pottery of Nay Tappeh and that of Archaic Dehistan, which some scholars associate with earlier pottery traditions in the Gorgan Plain and surrounding regions. Additionally, this research seeks to explore the broader cultural geography of Iron Age pottery in the Gorgan Plain, Archaic Dehistan, and other key areas within the Iranian cultural sphere.
The value of this study lies in its potential to bridge gaps in our understanding of cultural transitions in Hyrcania, a region historically positioned at the crossroads of civilizations. By examining pottery forms, we can trace not only technological and artistic developments but also the movement of people and ideas across time and space.
 
2. Materials and Methods
This investigation combines a morphological analysis of pottery with the creation of a comparative database. The primary goal is to trace the evolution of Iron Age pottery forms from the Late Bronze Age by comparing them with earlier Hyrcanian pottery. Furthermore, the study compares pottery from Nay Tappeh with Iron Age assemblages from the Gorgan Plain, Dehistan, the Central Plateau, and western and northwestern Iran.
The research seeks to address three main questions: What are the formal similarities between Nay Tappeh pottery and Bronze Age Hyrcanian pottery? Based on comparative analysis, where does Nay Tappeh fit within the Iron Age chronology of Iran? How can the similarities and changes in pottery forms be interpreted in the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in this region? To achieve these objectives, the study employs a comparative approach based on typological analysis. Additionally, comparative studies have been conducted using pottery from sites excavated during the Gorgan Wall excavation projects. This integrated methodology provides a more comprehensive understanding of the pottery’s cultural and chronological context.
 
3. Data
Pottery constitutes the majority of artifacts found at Nay Tappeh and has been classified into 25 main groups based on morphology. These groups are divided into two primary categories: open-mouthed and close-mouthed vessels, with an additional category for kitchenware. These categories are then compared with Bronze Age pottery from Hyrcania and Iron Age pottery from northern Iran (Plates 1-3, Table 1).
The pottery forms from Nay Tappeh show remarkable similarities to those from ancient Dehistan and align closely with examples documented by scholars such as Arne (1945), Deshayes (1969), Olson and Thornton (2019), Schmidt (1937), Salzman (2014), Abbasi (2011), Mahforozi and Piller (2009), Ghasemi (2017), and Khlopin (1983, 2002). These scholars have identified similar forms in Late Bronze Age sites such as Shah Tappeh IIa, Turang Tappeh IIIc, Hesar IIIc, Narges Tappeh, and Gohar Tappeh. Notably, some forms resemble those attributed by Deshayes (1969) to the IIIb period of Tureng Tappeh, including dishes, simple and carinated bowls, bowls with obliquely cut rims, spouted bowls, deep bowls, lids, various pots, teapots, and kitchenware.
The pottery forms from Nay Tappeh also exhibit strong parallels with contemporaneous assemblages from Dehistan, North Khorasan, Semnan, Mazandaran, Gilan, the Central Plateau, and western and northwestern Iran. Additionally, two distinctive forms tripods and bowls with horizontal handles appear in the Nay Tappeh assemblage. These forms first emerged in the mid-second millennium BCE at sites such as Pardis and Seram on the Central Plateau.
The presence of these unique forms suggests a degree of regional specialization, possibly linked to specific functional or cultural practices. For example, tripods may have been used for cooking over open flames, while bowls with horizontal handles could have served ceremonial purposes. However, such interpretations require further contextual evidence to confirm.
Based on comparative analysis, the pottery from Nay Tappeh can be dated to the late Iron Age II, Iron Age III, and the early Achaemenid period (Table 1). At the same time, these forms demonstrate clear continuity with Bronze Age traditions despite undergoing evolutionary changes. If we rely solely on published pottery evidence and absolute dates, it appears that between approximately 2100 and 1600 BCE, Bronze Age cultures in the region maintained earlier pottery traditions while introducing new forms. However, this period also marked a transitional phase, often characterized as a decline, which eventually led to the emergence of Iron Age I. Following this transition, a gap of approximately 100 to 200 years is observed before the onset of Iron Age II and III cultures, which left a distinct archaeological footprint across the region.
 
4. Discussion
This study demonstrates that, despite gradual changes, the pottery forms from Nay Tappeh maintain a strong connection to Bronze Age traditions, reflecting cultural continuity in the region. The findings underscore the significance of Nay Tappeh as a key site for understanding the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in Hyrcania and its broader cultural connections within the Iranian sphere.
The pottery from Nay Tappeh provides valuable insights into the cultural and chronological developments in Hyrcania during this transition. The classification of 25 main groups of pottery, divided into open-mouthed and closed-mouthed vessels, reveals significant similarities with contemporaneous assemblages from Dehistan, North Khorasan, Semnan, Mazandaran, Gilan, and western Iran. The presence of distinctive forms, such as tripods and bowls with horizontal handles, further highlights the cultural interactions between the Gorgan Plain and the Central Plateau during the second millennium BCE.
One of the most intriguing aspects of this study is the evidence of cultural resilience in Hyrcania. Despite external influences and internal changes, the region’s pottery traditions exhibit a remarkable degree of continuity. This resilience may be attributed to the region’s geographical isolation, which allowed it to preserve its cultural identity while selectively adopting external innovations.
 
5. Conclusion
The dating of Nay Tappeh pottery to the late Iron Age II, Iron Age III, and early Achaemenid period, alongside its continuity with Bronze Age traditions, underscores the region’s cultural resilience and adaptability. This study not only contributes to the understanding of Iron Age pottery in Hyrcania but also emphasizes the need for further research to address unresolved questions regarding the region’s archaeological chronology and cultural geography.
Future research should focus on expanding the comparative database to include more sites from neighboring regions. Such approaches could provide deeper insights into the functional and symbolic roles of pottery in ancient Hyrcanian society.

Abstract Shell, as the natural shell of some mollusks, has always interested humans. Some of these ‎species have been part of man's diet since the beginning of his cultural development. In contrast, others ‎have been used as natural utensils or as ornaments. Among the people, the characteristics of this ‎shell group are clarified based on their spatial analysis, which is often placed in religious ‎contexts such as shrines as special offerings and gifts or grave gifts with the deceased‏. ‏While in ‎some Far Eastern cultures, they have been used as money in some cases. The Surkh  Lori is one ‎of the key areas of the second millennium BC. It is located in western Iran's region behind the mountain ‎‎(Lorestan). It was first excavated by Erich Schmidt in 1938 and introduced as a ‎temple. Many of the objects found in this area are votive offerings made by the area's people ‎for the good of this Temple. Among these objects, at least 532 sea shells have been found. Their origin is determined according to their biological typology from the Persian Gulf to the Sea of ‎Oman. The abundance of shells such as Kowzak or Cowries indicates that this Temple belonged to a ‎female goddess, probably "Ninlil," because of the accompaniment of such shells in the context of ‎the first millennium BC; It is commonly reported in the graves of women and children.

Abstract The study of architecture and architectural decorations is one of the most basic archaeological tools for the recognition of ancient cultures and societies. However, despite its importance as the prologue of Iranian architecture in the historical period (i.e., Median and Persian architecture), Iranian Iron Age architecture has been studied less than it deserves. Painted bricks and tiles— which are found across different regions of Iran, e.g., the Northwest, Luristan, and the Central Plateau at ancient sites such as Hasanlu, Qalaichi, Rabat, Baba Jan, Qoli Darvish, Sialk, Shamshirgah, and Gholam Tape—are among the most significant elements of Iron Age architecture, about which our knowledge has grown considerably over the last few decades. The present article deals with the descriptions of the aforementioned bricks and their typology. We try to show how much these bricks have been influenced by the art of neighboring nations. This article also aims to indicate the function of these painted bricks, and by extension, the function of the buildings on which these bricks are adorned. The research results suggest that these bricks can be divided into three distinct categories that are consistent with a triple political and geographical division of Iran during the first half of the first millennium BCE. The research also shows that despite the fact that these bricks have been influenced by the art of neighboring regions, they are indigenous and have been made by native artisans. It seems that the painted bricks of the Iranian Iron Age are mostly used in religious buildings and temples of this time.

Abstract Until recently, the culture of the late Iron Age in the central Iranian Plateau had only been identified at the southern mound of Sialk. In this study, a newly discovered site, called Qolam Tepe, is introduced in the foothills of western Kashan at a very close distance to Sialk. None of the surface findings of Qolam Tepe show any era other than the Iron Age III, or there is no Sialk VI, so we have ascertained one of the satellite sites of Sialk VI. Since the Qolam Tepe is exclusively a single-period site (Iron III), given the apparent fact that the decorative bricks found in Qolam Tepe in every aspect match the decorative bricks of “la Grande Construction” of Sialk. They can be attributed to a single cultural period and are surveyed as a single chronological horizon, thus again leading to the attribution of the “la Grande Construction” of Sialk to the end of the Iron Age. Surface survey finds from this site indicate that it is contemporaneous to the Iron Age, layers 5 and 6 of the southern mound of Sialk (and Cemeteries A and B)

Abstract In recent years, an increasing number of archaeological investigations have produced new evidence for the prehistoric development (both in chronology and settlement patterns) in the westernmost provinces of Iran. Prior to the commencement of the MPAP an earlier survey in the Marivan region had been carried out by the Department of Archaeology at Bu Ali Sina University in Hamadan (Iran). Research focused on the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods and, unfortunately, evidence from the Chalcolithic periods is yet to be published. The Marivan Plain Survey Project, by Morteza Zamani Dadaneh from the University of Kurdistan, Kurdish Studies Institute, conducted a first season of systematic survey for four weeks in the summer of 2018. The goal of MPAP is to reassess previous survey work in the region. Archaeological project of Marivan plain in 2018 resulted in identifying 60 sites from Neolithic to more recent time. Among identified sites: 1 site dating back to PPN Neolithic, 14 site to chalcolithic period (early, middle and late), 2 site to Bronze Age probably, 11 site to Iron Age, 28 site to historic (Parthian) period and 12 site to Islamic era. Regarding the settlement pattern of prehistoric sites (Neolithic and chalcolithic period), it become clear that all prehistoric sites distributed in the northern and southern shore of Zeribar lake. Most probably such pattern influenced from Zeribar sea level and access to the fertilized agricultural lands in this area in Neolithic and chalcolithic times. But the distribution pattern of historic and Islamic sites is somewhat different from prehistoric pattern and is similar to pattern of nowadays residential areas. Current and historic/Islamic residential area placed close to permanent water sources in the narrow valleys surrounded the Zeribar lake. Of course, part of the Marivan Plain is located in the east of the current Marivan City, which is far from Zarivar Lake, and dispersed settlements in this section formed on the edge of the main river, one of the branches of the Garan River

Abstract Interpretation of human’s old behaviors in the past and paying attention to complex and interactive processes between humans and the environment to be understood in terms of their dependence on the components of the natural and ecological environment is the center of modern archaeology’s attention.  Archaeological surveys and analysis of settlement patterns are considered well-known methods in archaeology to help identify these interactive processes.With the studies of the Archaeological Board of the University of Pennsylvania on Hasanlu Hill and the Sandus Plain, the southern basin of Lake Urmia became one of the most important archaeological sites and a basis for chronology in northwestern Iran. Meanwhile, Piranshahr plain on one hand due to its proximity toHasanlu area in the north and Rabat area in the south and on the other hand due to the neighborhood of this area with great powers such as Assyria, Urartu and Mana in the first half of the first millennium BC, Is one of the important areas in terms of archaeological studies of the Iron Age in northwestern Iran. This study examined the Piranshahr plain, assuming that the Iron Age settlements of the Piranshahr plain follow a specific settlement pattern. In this research, using field and library studies and geographical analysis models, a methodical and appropriate interpretation of the distribution of Iron Age areas and the first millennium BCPiranshahr plain was presented. Studies have shown that the Iron Age settlements in the region are most affected by two geographical factors, altitude from sea surface and access to rivers, and this has led to the creation of linear networks in the course of rivers resulting to a suitable choice of height relating to the plain. It was also found that the Iron Age settlements of this plain, following the shape of the roughness and natural geography of the region in the first half of the first millennium BC, by creating a specific settlement hierarchy, tended to form an independent local political unit. The existence of this political unit in modern Assyrian writings as Xubuskie could be identified.

Abstract Archaeological studies in the region of Qara Dagh (or Arasbaran) are of particular importance due to the fact that this region is located in the area between East-West (Iranian) Azerbaijan and Iran-Anatolian Plateau, as well as north to south of Caucasus-Iran. Archaeological activities in Qara Dagh are often aimed at conducting systematic research to explain the socio-political situations, investigate the cultural-technological currents and changes, explore the connecting and commercial routes of Northern region of Azerbaijan during the Bronze and Iron ages, outline the long-term scientific landscape, and also to understand the archaeological status of the region, relying on field and laboratory methods. The first season of this project, in 2017, dealt with identification of the Bronze and Iron Age sites of Varzeqan city. During the present survey, have been recorded 143 sites from the early Bronze Age to the Iron Age III in the region; and from the most important results of this survey, the changes recorded during the transitions from each period to the next period in relation to demographic changes, settlement patterns and location selecting, evaluating the landscape and natural resources in order to be aware of food networks and economic systems, studying the ecology of the region, livelihood approaches and burial methods can be mentioned. According to this evidence, settlements have been very limited in the region during the early Bronze Age. With the collapse of semi-farmer communities in the early Bronze Age, nomadic life was limitedly formed in the middle of the Bronze Age. In the late of Middle Bronze Age, once again, with the formation of sedentary communities, an increase in the population of the region and the emergence of social complexities are seen during the late Bronze Age to the Iron Age II, followed by the establishment of a primitive class society which was formed under the administration of local small rulers

Abstract Pottery is one of the cultural evidences that its developments in different times are important archaeological indicators. Pottery can be viewed from different aspects. Appearance features such as form, shape, color, decoration and pottery production technology have changed over time. In this research, with the study of the technology of the pottery obtained from the excavation of the Sagzabad Tepe in Qazvin plain, which is one of the important areas of excavation in the central plateau of Iran, the period of the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age has been investigated. In this study, with focus on the pottery in this region, new information on the production of pottery has been obtained. To determine the chemical composition of the potteries, a series of excavated objects consisting of a selection of potteries from each period were analyzed using the ICP-OES method and a statistical comparison of the data obtained from the measurement of 40 elements was performed consisting of the major, minor and trace ones. The correlation coefficient of the analyzed samples also was   studied. Comparing the results obtained from the analysis of potteries according to the hypothesis suggests that all potteries are probably local productions and it is possible that they have been produced in the same region (clay sources) in different periods.is possible that they have been produced  in the same region (clay sources) in different periods.

Abstract Transformation Processes cover the issues on interactions between tools and structures with natural and cultural environments. These processes provide a profound concept on the archaeological site formations through which the sites were subjected to the various alterations. Understanding of these processes and their context helps archaeologist to interpret archaeological data in an appropriate way. In this research we have tried to use transformation processes for interpreting of cultural material of a rescue excavations carried out at Tepe Bimarestan in Ashkhane town, North Khorasan Province. Tepe Bimarestan Cemetery is located on the natural hill in the southern periphery of Ashkhane town. The aim of the excavations at this site was at the first to rescue cultural data Bulldozer diggings. This mound was used as cemetery during Iron Age and then by Islamic Periods. Because of the latter, many of Iron Age graves were destroyed except just one escaped. By this process there have been a great number typical Iron Age sherds were scattered over the site. Pottery sherds of Tepe Bimarestan show a close similarity to those found from the Northern Central and northwestern Iran as well as to the potteries of Archaic Dehistan Culture from South-West Turkmenistan. A more detailed study of these pottery comparisons clarified two periods of the Iron Age; 1- Early Iron Age and or earlier; and 2- Late Iron Age. The results obtained could help to conclude that the site was firstly used as a cemetery during the early Iron Age but then during the Late Iron Age this place was altered to have been settled temporarily by the nomadic peoples.

Abstract The isotopic analysis solves many important issues in archeology and anthropology including the reconstruction of past diets, tracing the footsteps of the ancient migrations and recognition of climate change. Stable isotope analysis has been applied in archaeology during the last three decades to address questions regarding the paleoclimatology, palaeodietary and palaeomobility. In this research, we focus on the human skeleton remains of Iron Age cemetery of Gohar Tepe, using Strontium stable isotope analysis to reconstruction the aspects of the past mobility. At the same time we tried to identify the geographical origin of people that buried in residential areas or ancient cemeteries. This approach in a geological region could make a substantial contribution to assess various aspects including migration models, cultural changes, colonialism and trade. Also research related to the palaeomigration has long been done by different analytical methods. Gohar Tepe is one of the areas that able to respond multiple questions about social and cultural developments of Iron Age in northern Iran. Tooth samples obtained from skeletons of the mentioned site where studied through Strontium isotope ratio (87Sr/86Sr) were used to address the question of whether the skeletons are local or non-local. Result of 87Sr/86Sr revealed that six of samples could be considered as local and five others to have been c as non-local.

Abstract ‌Southern basin of Urmia Lake has faced the significant political, cultural, and artistic evolutions during the first millennium BC. Rising and development of local governments caused progresses in arts especially in the metal working productions. Gargul belt was discovered fragmentarily in 2009 at Gargul village about 35 Km to Hasanlu. The belt was discovered as nine fragmentary pieces of a 95 cm bronze plate. The main centrally decoration of the belt has been worked on the buckle. Although, manufacturer did not focus on details in Gargul belt, apparently the depictions inspired by Assyrian and created out by local artist. At 1st millennium BC, there are local, Assyrian, Urartu, and sometimes Schythian artistic styles at southern basin of Urmia Lake, however, Gargul belt clearly would introduce a local artistic style that is apparent in the findings from Hasanlu, Ziwyeh and Ghalaichi which have been  partially comparable to Mannaean art. The belt of Gargul can be attributed to one of rulers or commanders of Gilzanu at 2nd half of 9th century or later when the Solduz plain was occupied by Urartuians.

Abstract Extensive or intensive methods in archeological surveys are amongst the most common practical techniques in identifying phenomena, cultural changes and cultural ecosystem. Studying and identifying plains, valleys and different regions would definitely have many results which can ultimately lead to a comprehensive database about ancient societies and their interactions. Different plains on the slopes of Alvand, a subrange of the Zagros Mountains in western Iran, including Tuyserkan plain in eastern central Zagros have always been the center of human societies with high potentials as settlements for primary societies. Regarding the research project of “investigating, identifying, complementary documenting and registering the ancient sits of Tuyserkan County” this region was intensively surveyed during the winter of 2012 and archeological studies were conducted with the aim of recognizing and registering illegible historical and ancient sites. On the basis of this survey 44 sites from chalcolithic to recent Islamic periods were identified, including 3 chalcolithic sites, 4 Bronze Age sites and only 2 Iron Age sites. Dalma ceramics and painted stemware known as BOB are the featured ceramics of chalcolithic period in this region, while Bronze Age is featured with Yaniq ceramics and Iron Age with buff ware and gray ware ceramics. The present study aims in studying and analyzing the expansion pattern and spatial distribution of human settlements in this area from chalcolithic to Iron Age and estimating the archaeological hierarchy of these sites and their spatial relations on western side of Alvand mountain range among themselves and with their adjacent cultural areas.

Abstract Applications of bronze alloy to produce different decorative and ritual objects have been commonplace during the Iranian Iron Age. A large number of bronze objects from the second and first millennia BC are discovered from archaeological excavations. Many of these objects were found from the Iron Age graveyards and sanctuaries of Luristan region. In this paper, some bronze objects discovered from Baba Jilan Iron Age graveyard, Pish-i Kuh of Luristan, are examined by analytical methods. For this purpose, metallography and SEM-EDS methods are employed to identify alloy composition and microstructure of bronze samples. The results showed that all samples are made of variable tin content bronze alloy. The variable tin content is a common event in Iron Age bronze objects and proves that an uncontrolled alloying method has been used to make bronze alloy. Analysis of different fine phases scattered in the microstructure of samples showed that they are sulphidic inclusions as well as lead globules. On the other hand, metallographic observations revealed that cycles of cold working and annealing are used to shaping and manufacturing the objects.

Abstract The current article is a research on the classification of the potteries found from a scientific excavations of Jafar Abad Kurgans. Kurgans are kind of graves that are mostly unknown which were paid less attention than other sites in Iran. Research on the potteries that are found in the graves enable us to identify some aspects of cultures moreover gives us insight into thoughts, beliefs, faiths and daily life styles of people and tribes who made them.
Pottery art because of its plenitude and popularity in each region signify climatic characteristics and historical, economical, social, cultural and artistic characteristics those who have lived in the area. Forms, shapes, colors, patterns, decorations, construction techniques, heating methods that are used in the creation of the pottery vessels contain valuable concepts about different life styles and living conditions of the tribes and are considered as power of innovation of their makers after thousands of years.
Data on Jafar Abad Kurgans potteries, although a few of them have been explored, show nomadic lifestyles. The main goal of this article is to identify Kurgans Culture who built those Kurgans graves and put the items burried in them. Pottery items by far is the most abundant of the finds and their typology and chronology could be the most important archaeological evidences and documents.

Abstract This paper examines some of the results of the archaeological survey conducted in Ardabil Province in summer 2001. Ardabil Province is situated in northwest Iran and in the neighborhood of of Azerbaijan Republic. The survey of the surrounding area gives an account of the different graves. The greaves are characterized by simple grave; Megalithic graves with and without Stele and Kurgan mound. The large Megalithic are a form of graves with large stone structure, such as Gale Khosro and Shahrieri. The burial mounds or Kurgans are a form of monumental architecture found throughout Ardabil Province, in Meshkinshar, Idier and Gozalou near Parsabad. Most of the graves in Ardabil Province are dated to the late Chalcolithic -early Bronze Age to Iron Age.    

Abstract The most important characteristics of the occupants of the second millennium BC in northern Iran and its adjacent regions such as the provinces of East Azerbaijan, Ardabil, Azerbaijan Republic, Armenia and southern Russia, is the settlements containing castles with defense walls and huge stone graves as well using bronze artifacts and production of gray and buff polished pottery. The presence of a large number of Kurgan graves distributed on the wider areas of East Azerbaijan to southern Russia which often lack residential areas, have been the fundamental problems concerning architectural patterns of their culture. In this paper it is attempted through comparative study to represent the main features of the second millennium BC in Eastern Azerbaijan on the basis of zard khaneh excavation and nearby regions.    

Abstract The present study relies on determination of diet by adapting analysis on carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes extracted from dental collagen of twelve human skeletons buried in Iron Age grave situated in Gohar Tapeh archaic settlement at eastern region of Mazandaran Province, locating on southern coast of Caspian Sea.
The geographical and geometric evidences indicate that Gohar Tapeh zone is situated on a sedimentary plain. On the other hand, discovery of animal’s archaeological data such as ovine species as well as plants’ archeological evidences like barley and the signs relating to farming activities in this zone obtained by using lamella that forms 70% of total stone-made tools, suggesting that animal husbandry and agriculture were among the major activities done by inhabitants in this region.
The results came from analysis on isotopes of carbon (13) and nitrogen (15) also confirmed that the inhabitants had consumed land mammals in their diet in this area. Concentration levels of isotope of carbon 13 which are approximately -20.2 through -19.9 per thousand units signify that there is no sign of consuming plant (C4) in diet of inhabitant people in this region and like today, plants (C3) had been consuming as the dominant flora throughout this zone. The resulting levels of isotopes of nitrogen -15 are about 8.79-11.3 per thousand units so this indicates the presence of land herbivorous animals (Ovine Species) and plants- C3 (wheat and barley) in the given diet. Thus, results of isotopic analysis done for Gohar Tapeh zone show a diet based on plant- C3 ecology in this land. Comparison between results of analysis on samples taken from Gohar Tapeh zone and results of analysis on three other zones (outside Iran) also verifies this point.

Abstract Like the adjacent areas including Savojbolagh and Tehran Plain etc, Taleghan is one of the regions susceptible to form Iron Age Settlements at northern central part of Iranian Plateau. During an archaeological survey in this region in 2001, 19 zones were attributed to Iron Age Region so that due to study on the findings resulting from this survey again, only ten of them included characteristic and remarkable and chronological potteries. Comparison among potteries in this region may indicate that the given potteries are related to Iron Age I and II. It seems the high altitude of Taleghan region as well as its cold and mountaineous climate along with the lack of farming lands caused this region to draw attention of nomadic communities during Iron Age like the present time.

Abstract Sagz?b?d Mound was one of the first areas excavated in the course of archeological surveys conducted by the University of Tehran in Qazvin Plain. Findings indicate its permanent establishment since the end of the third millennium up to the mid-first millennium B.C.; However, during the recent explorations made by the University of Tehran in October and November 2008, absolute dating was carried out on Sagz?b?d Mound as a result of which the area was estimated to have been established at around 1700 B.C., in addition to the southern part of the Mound which contained layers established since the mid-fourth millennium B.C. Excavations revealed that the area between the two regions of Sagz?b?d and Qabrest?n is likely to contain layers established in the second half of the fourth millennium B.C. buried under a large amount of sediment. Accordingly, it is most probable that in the New Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone) Age the establishment of Qabrest?n Mound must have been towards the east.

Abstract Studying and understanding social, economic and political structures of Iron Age societies is an important aspect of archaeological studies on this age. Archaeological surveys of Iron Age in Iran have so far been concentrated on typological study and comparison of the findings obtained from excavations in the cemeteries of this era, and little attention has been paid to examining and reconstructing various social, economical and political aspects of societies of this period. Our archaeological knowledge of Iron Age Iran is greatly based on the excavations carried out in cemeteries of this period, but settlement sites have not been examined sufficiently.
Most researchers have so far classified Iron Age peoples of Iran as societies lacking organized political and administrative institutions, and have referred to them as wanderers, on the basis of the small number of the settlement sites. Studying, explaining and analyzing the data obtained from the excavation of the settlement sites of this period can prove the existence of social, economic and political institutions and that they were well organized.
The discovery of some grey potsherds with cylinder seal impressions along with such evidences as seals, plaster tokens, big crocks and remains of crock plumps in granaries and places of special usage in large and important Iron Age settlement sites, provides good evidence on social and economic organizations related to agricultural affairs.