Abstract
Fortresses are a type of architectural structure that, due to their enclosed nature, historically ensured the security of the human communities residing within them. While security was the primary factor for the establishment of fortresses, the evolving dynamics of human societies gradually influenced their character, transforming them into tangible expressions or manifestations of the prevailing sociopolitical conditions of their time. With the emergence of centralized authorities and governments, fortresses became the residences of political and military elites and, depending on their specific functions, were responsible for the administration and oversight of parts of the surrounding community. In 2020, an archaeological survey was conducted in the two counties of Jovein and Joghatay, located in the northwestern part of Razavi Khorasan Province. This fieldwork led to the identification of sixteen fortresses and hillforts that had not been previously documented or studied. This research employs a descriptive-analytical approach to address questions concerning the typology of fortresses, the role of landscape in determining their function, and, ultimately, their social status. In addition to field investigations and comprehensive documentation of architectural evidence and surface finds, interdisciplinary methods such as remote sensing and environmental monitoring using drones were employed. Archival research was also carried out, utilizing historical and architectural sources relevant to the subject. The results of this study include the identification and characterization of four distinct types of plain fortresses and two types of mountain fortresses in the region. Each type exhibits unique morphological features, functions, and social roles within its historical context. Chronologically, these fortresses belong to the Islamic period, spanning from the Ilkhanid to the Qajar eras.
Keywords:  Mountain and Plain Fortresses, Typology, Function, Jovein and Joghatay, Islamic Period.
 
1. Introduction
Fortifications are enclosed structures with towers and ramparts, primarily constructed for security purposes, and they exhibit considerable functional and structural diversity. Their study illuminates the trajectory of defensive architecture and its interrelation with environmental, political, and social conditions. The typology of fortifications is based on geographical location, scale, spatial organization, and architectural features, reflecting their primary functions. The presence of fortifications in Iran can be traced back to prehistoric times, with examples identified at Godin and the fortified building at Shahr-i Sokhta (Schmidt, 1937; Young, 1969). With the formation of states and the development of interregional exchange networks, the need to defend cities and settlements increased, and the construction of towers and ramparts emerged as a key strategy for ensuring security. This architectural tradition was particularly significant in Khorasan, which served both as a major east–west trade corridor and as the first defensive frontier against incursions from northern and eastern groups. The region faced persistent threats from the Achaemenid period through the later centuries, including invasions by the Saka, Hephthalites, Turks, Mongols, and Turkmens (Pīrbariān, 2002: 59; Altheim, 2009: 69–70; Shipman, 2004: 45–46; Schindler, 1977: 184).
The main objective of this study is to identify, classify, and analyze the fundamental factors influencing the construction of fortifications and fortified mounds (tepe-qal‘ehs) in the Jovein and Joghatay plains, as well as to investigate their social functions and roles. The key research questions addressed are: How can fortifications be categorized according to their natural setting? And what were their social roles and functions within the region?
The study area encompasses the northwestern part of Razavi Khorasan Province, specifically the Jovein and Joghatay counties. These two counties form a unified geographical zone, measuring approximately 120 km in length and 30 km in width, with an average elevation of 1,075 m. Archaeological surveys indicate that human settlement in this region dates back to the Paleolithic period and continued throughout the historical and Islamic periods (Mirzaye & Sadraei, 2024; Mirzaye, 2020). This research employs an archaeological approach and is designed as a descriptive–analytical study, integrating field surveys, documentation, and archival analysis. Fieldwork involved the recording of archaeological remains, precise measurements, mapping, 3D scanning, and the use of advanced technologies such as satellite imagery, drones, and GIS software for reconstructing site layouts. These datasets facilitated a detailed analysis of the location, size, spatial organization, and architectural features of the fortifications. The archival research component included the study of archaeological reports, historical and social sources, architectural studies, and cultural landscape research. This phase provided insights into the historical background of fortifications, their social and military interactions, and their role in securing the region. Ultimately, the integration of field and archival data enabled a comprehensive analysis of the typology, functions, and social significance of fortifications in the study area.
 
2. Analysis and discussion
In the Jovein and Joghatay plains, sixteen fortifications and fortified mounds were identified and examined. The selection of this study area was based on its historical significance, geopolitical importance, and accessibility for fieldwork. According to their geographical setting, the fortifications can be classified into two main groups: plain fortifications and mountain fortifications. The plain fortifications comprise ten sites, including Tapeh Kheshti, Aq-Qal‘eh, Azadvar, and Khodashah. Based on their spatial and architectural features, these can be further subdivided into three categories: a) Non-enclosed village fortifications: Examples include Zirabad, Khodashah, Narenj Tapeh, and Azadvar. Each site consisted of a central fortification, a residential quarter, a cemetery, and industrial areas, reflecting a complex social and hierarchical structure. b) Enclosed fortifications: The most prominent example is Aq-Qal‘eh, covering an area of 52 hectares. This site includes a fortification, a mosque, and settlement layers dating from the Ilkhanid to the Qajar periods. c) Isolated fortifications: These include Tapeh Moghul, Bisjird, Kohneh-Qal‘eh Nobāgh, and Tapeh Ebrahimabad. Tapeh Moghul, with its octagonal plan, outer rampart, and central citadel, is particularly noteworthy and likely served a primarily military function.
The mountain fortifications consist of sites such as Oqlān Qiz Qal‘eh, Qal‘eh Qārzi, Kohneh-Qal‘eh Abuchanari, Bahan, Shākh Sabr, and Shaykh. Oqlān Qiz Qal‘eh, with its elevated position and watchtowers, is a clear example of a military stronghold. The other sites in this group appear to have functioned mainly as emergency refuges during periods of social crisis.The peak of activity and utilization of these fortifications occurred during the Middle Islamic centuries, although some evidence indicates earlier phases of occupation. A comprehensive understanding of these fortifications and their associated settlements requires the simultaneous analysis of historical, geographical, and archaeological factors. Medieval geographical sources describe the Jovein plain primarily as a rural area, with Azadvar being the only urban center, administratively dependent on Nishapur (Ḥamavī, 2004: 112; Maqdisī, 2006: 465).
Among the plain fortifications, the sites of Azadvar, Khodashah, and Aq-Qal‘eh occupy a distinctive position due to their structural characteristics, spatial layout, and scale. These settlements typically consisted of two principal components: the citadel (arg or qal‘eh) and the residential quarter (shahrestān). In addition to towers and ramparts, some complexes also featured moats and concealed passageways. Such features reflect their role as centers of authority and administration. It appears that these centralized village-fortifications served as residences and operational bases for local rulers, military commanders, and administrative officials such as scribes, who were responsible for the political and social management of the region (Kirka et al., 2020: 8–9).
The isolated fortifications provide limited evidence of socio-economic activities, whereas the mountain fortifications primarily served defensive and refuge functions. In response to insecurity, local communities adopted two strategies: 1. settling in proximity to ruling centers; 2. migrating to southern mountainous areas, which, despite being less favorable for permanent habitation, offered security. Within this framework, Oqlān Qiz Qal‘eh played a key role in protecting local routes and nearby villages, while Tapeh Moghul likely functioned as a command center during periods of potential Mongol incursions
 
3. Conclusion
The study of fortifications in the Jovein and Joghatay plains demonstrates that from the Ilkhanid to the Qajar periods, these settlements were adaptive responses to security and environmental challenges. The plain fortifications functioned as centers of habitation and economic administration, typically characterized by a citadel located in the southern section and residential quarters to the north, thereby exerting control over surrounding villages. In contrast, isolated fortifications and certain complexes provide little evidence of socio-economic activity, and their internal organization remains poorly understood. Mountain fortifications were primarily constructed for defensive and refuge purposes; examples such as Oqlān Qiz Qal‘eh played a strategic role in securing caravan routes and overseeing nearby settlements.