Journal of Archaeological Studies

Amir Saedmucheshi; sirvan Mohammadi Ghasrian; Masashi Abe; Morteza Zamani Dadane; Salman Khosravi; Sarieh Amiri; Marjan Mashkour; Mohammad Sedigh Ghorbani; Faranak Bahrololumi; Hossein Davoudi

Volume 16, Issue 2 , September 2024, , Pages 151-181

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2024.373818.143256

Abstract

The archaeological site of Sarcham is situated in the southwestern region (Hawraman Region) of Kurdistan Province in western Iran. It was excavated as part of the Darian Dam Archaeological ... Read More

The Continuity and Relationship between Meaning and Example in the Tombstone of the Islamic Age of Iran (Case Study of Ram and Stone Lion)

Esmaeel Maroufi Aghdam; Karim Hajizadeh; Reza Rezaloo; Behrouz Afkhami

Volume 14, Issue 3 , October 2022, , Pages 169-194

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2020.286487.142760

Abstract

Tombstones in cemeteries are perhaps one of the most semantically complex human works of art. Tombstones deal with the most important and most painful event in human life, namely death ... Read More

Formation, Development and Evolutions in Metallurgy of Copper and its Alloys during the Prehistoric Period of Iran: From Copper Usage to Evidences of Brass

Omid Oudbashi

Volume 13, Issue 1 , July 2021, , Pages 139-166

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.248585.142512

Abstract

The Iranian Plateau and its residents can be enumerated as one of the pioneers in progress of technology, science and knowledge in the ancient world. The development of metallurgy on ... Read More The Iranian Plateau and its residents can be enumerated as one of the pioneers in progress of technology, science and knowledge in the ancient world. The development of metallurgy on the Iranian Plateau has been a topic of interest to both archaeologists and scientists for many years because of the remarkable history of the metallurgical activities in this region and concerned the wide variety of the technologies, compositions, innovations, etc. (Figure 1). Results of many investigations in metallurgy of ancient Iranian Plateau show usage of copper and its alloys in different periods of Iran history from prehistoric to Islamic era. In this paper, formation, evolutions and developments occurred in metallurgy of copper alloys have reviewed and in prehistoric period of Iran (7000-500 BC) based on archaeological and archaeometallurgical investigations. The results of analytical and archaeological studies state the first metal used in prehistory of Iranian Plateau has been copper. It is apparent that the Iranian Plateau has a significant history in the metallurgy of copper and its alloys in the prehistoric period. It has begun in the Neolithic period and during 4000 years has transformed from forming objects by hammering native copper to extensive smelting of oxidic and sulphidic ores in Chalcolithic era. The ancient metalworkers used native copper to manufacture small decorative objects, as it was observed in Ali Kosh Neolithic site (Figure 2). It was developed by shaping native copper to produce small functional objects such as objects discovered from late Neolithic sites (Figure 2). It was continued by melting native copper to cast objects. Furthermore, metallurgical processes were extended by smelting copper oxidic ores in crucibles during 5th and 4th millennium BC. In fact, the chalcolithic period (ca. 4500-3000 BC) is the period of emergence and development of smelting of oxidic and then sulphidic copper ores in small scale. There are numerous evidences of copper smelting in the chalcolithic archaeological sites such as Qabristan, Tal-i Iblis, etc. showing the crucible smelting technology in different regions of the Iranian Plateau (Figure 3). This technology was developed by large-scale smelting of copper ores, as it was discovered in Arisman, near Kashan. Of course, the metallurgical technologies during the late chalcolithic period (ca. 3500-3000 BC), is a mixture of crucible smelting and furnace smelting (Figure 4). It is worth noting that the main metallic composition in the Chalcolithic period is arsenical copper that may has been produced accidentally by smelting As-bearing copper ores leading to obtain metallic copper with significant amounts of arsenic (Figure 5). Nevertheless, some evidences of intentional arsenical copper production have been found during late Chalcolithic and early Bronze Age archaeological sites, such as Arisman. The third millennium BC was occurred with occurrence of a new alloy, tin bronze. Early evidences of this technology was observed in western Iran, Luristan at the beginning of the third millennium BC. Some tin bronze objects with significant amounts of tin were detected among copper and arsenical copper objects discovered from Early Bronze Age graveyards such as Kalleh Nisar and Bani Surmeh (Figure 6). Although, early evidences of tin bronze metallurgy have been occurred in the third millennium BC but this technology was limited for about 1000 years in western and south-western Iran. Results of analytical studies revealed that the main copper base metallurgy has been copper and arsenical copper in other regions of the Iranian Plateau during the third millennium BC. Tin bronze was emerged in central Iran during the middle and late Bronze Age (ca. 2500-1500 BC) such as evidences from Malyan (Fars). Therefore, no evidence of tin bronze has been observed in eastern Iran, even at the mid of the second millennium BC. Although tin bronze was occurred during the early Bronze Age and was spread during middle and late Bronze Age in western and central Iran, but it was the main copper-based alloy during the Iron Age of the Iranian Plateau (ca. 1500-550 BC). Results of analytical investigations states that tin bronze has been the main material in production of metallic objects at the whole of the Iranian Plateau. The ritual objects from Iron Age graveyards of western, northern and central Iran show application of tin bronze to produce these objects. The large scale tin bronze production is the Iron Age of Iran is an interesting aspect, as this alloy has been observed in different archaeological sites such as Hasanlu and Marlik (Figure 7). One of the important collections form this category are the Luristan Bronzes, the enigmatic and extraordinary metallic objects that were produced in high-quality craftsmanship and were placed in graves and sanctuaries as ritual objects (Figure 8). The results of chemical analysis on the Luristan Bronzes, as well as other tin bronze objects from Iran, shows that thy may have been produced by uncontrolled alloying methods. In fact, controlling tin content has not been an important case for ancient metalworkers during the Iron Age (and also the Bronze Age). Also, no correlation between tin content and object’s typology is visible in the tin bronze objects from prehistoric Iran, that is in contrast with accent cuneiform texts from Mesopotamia. It may show that tin bronze metallurgy in the Iranian Plateau may has not been in connection with the Mesopotamian technology. Although, evidences of copper-zinc objects have been observed among the other copper based artefacts from second and first millennium BC, but it can’t be stated that this material has been used as a deliberately produced metallurgical product. It is more probable that these limited examples of copper-zinc objects (probably brass) were produced by smelting Zn-bearing copper ores. Nevertheless, evidences of low-zinc objects from Tappeh Yahya (southern Iran) and Luristan shows occurrence of early brasses (probable accidentally) during the prehistoric Iran. Results of numerous analytical studies on the prehistoric copper base metallurgy during the last decades revealed interesting aspects of this technology from about 8000 BC. It has been started by using native copper and then developed by smelting oxidic and sulphidic copper in crucibles during the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods. Large scale smelting sites also were occurred during the late chalcolithic and early Bronze Age. Furthermore, application of different copper alloys such as arsenical copper, tin bronze and brass from Chalcolithic to Iron Age are important developments in archaeometallurgy in Iran. Totally, process of formation and development of copper metallurgy in prehistoric Iran has been introduced and revised based on technical and archaeological finds belonging a period about 6500 years (Figure 9).

An analysis on the political history of Indo-Parthian kingdom

tahere azizipoor

Volume 12, Issue 2 , September 2020, , Pages 187-203

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2020.277123.142690

Abstract

Archaeologically, and historically Indo Parthian kingdoms is not a well-known for us they have not has been mentioned in mythological history and in the historical resources of early ... Read More

Technical and Historical Identification of Gilded Tiles in Islamic Architecture of Iran

Moslem Mishmastnehi; Mohammad Mortazavi

Volume 12, Issue 1 , May 2020, , Pages 243-261

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2020.264467.142608

Abstract

This article aims to reveal the technical and historical characterizations of gilded tile decorations from the Islamic period architecture of Iran. This research is based on several ... Read More

Critical Analysis of Theories on the Origin of Ayvan

Abbas Rezaei Nia; Hayedeh Laleh

Volume 6, Issue 2 , March 2015, , Pages 59-71

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2015.54173

Abstract

As the achievement and an invaluable index of the Iranian culture, Ayvan (known also as Eyvan) has been the subject of many pieces of research by architects, archaeologists and art ... Read More

The First Yue Celadon in Iran and its Distribution Pattern in the Early Islamic Period

Mahsa Faizi; Firoz Mahjour

Volume 6, Issue 2 , March 2015, , Pages 131-148

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2015.54179

Abstract

Celadon as one of the oldest potteries originated at China during the Shang Period (3500 B.C (in Zhejiang province. From the Han dynasty (206-221 A.D), true celadon ware started to ... Read More

Coining in the Greek State of Bactria from Beginning to Decline

Nematollah Alimohammadi; Moharram Bastani

Volume 5, Issue 2 , March 2014, , Pages 99-112

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2014.50397

Abstract

Coin and coining as civilization indices have undergone many changes and development. It has been argued that the economic and political positions of states have always affected not ... Read More

Presentation of 12 Kinds of Stucco Works Used in the Architectural Decoration of the Islamic Period in Iran Based on Technical Properties

Ahmad Sālehi Kākhki; Hesām Aslāni

Volume 3, Issue 1 , July 2011, , Pages 89-1069

Abstract

According to technical presages, in the preliminary studies, we have found that there are at least 12 different kinds of stucco decorations belonging to the Islamic periods of Iran. ... Read More

Iran; Origin of So-Called Kūbācheh Pottery

Firūz Mahjūr

Volume 1, Issue 2 , February 2010, , Pages 143-160

Abstract

The Iranian origin of some pottery was confirmed by discovery of various types known as K?b?cheh, including black, green and colorful pens found in archeological excavations of the ... Read More

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Keywords = ایران

Excavation at Sarcham, A Multi-Period Archaeological Site in Hawraman Region, Kurdistan Province, Iran

Abstract

The Continuity and Relationship between Meaning and Example in the Tombstone of the Islamic Age of Iran (Case Study of Ram and Stone Lion)

Abstract

Formation, Development and Evolutions in Metallurgy of Copper and its Alloys during the Prehistoric Period of Iran: From Copper Usage to Evidences of Brass

Abstract

An analysis on the political history of Indo-Parthian kingdom

Abstract

Technical and Historical Identification of Gilded Tiles in Islamic Architecture of Iran

Abstract

Critical Analysis of Theories on the Origin of Ayvan

Abstract

The First Yue Celadon in Iran and its Distribution Pattern in the Early Islamic Period

Abstract

Coining in the Greek State of Bactria from Beginning to Decline

Abstract

Presentation of 12 Kinds of Stucco Works Used in the Architectural Decoration of the Islamic Period in Iran Based on Technical Properties

Abstract

Iran; Origin of So-Called Kūbācheh Pottery

Abstract