Journal of Archaeological Studies

Abstract Abstract
Evidence has shown that the history of communication between the people of Iran and China, to the formation of powerful empires of two lands, goes back long before the rise of Islam. Attested by textual sources and archeological documents, the experience of successful communication between the two countries continued even after the fall of the Sassanid dynasty. Historical reports of the 7th to the 16th century AD provide important information about the ups and downs of relations between the two countries. The recovery of their communication processes has shown that a mutual or double-sided history has resulted in a two-sided outcome. According to these reports, the process of communication contains four stages (Fig. 3). However, this has been put aside by several archeological researchers, who directly find evidence of early communication from the discovered documents, which is far from their actual understanding. and archaeology having Cultural findings examined with a question-oriented behavior, we are looking for this concept, so that by relying on pottery findings, can the question of “To what extent do the chronology of pottery findings emphasize the process of dealings and its turbulence?” can be answered? To answer this question, the results and conclusions of investigation and studies of pottery findings in the ancient sites of this region have been used. The findings of the research showed that although the historical reports explicitly in some cases emphasize the complete cancellation of relations or its indirectness, but the chronology of the study of pottery finds in the Persian Gulf region shows a continuous trend in their import. And the result emphasizes the integrity of the information, especially the accuracy in the chronology of pottery findings and their quantitative study.
Keywords: Archeology, Persian Gulf, Maritime Trade, Siraf, Celadon Pottery.
 
1. Introduction
Although Chinese sources have mentioned a political relationship between from 649 to 745 CE (Park, 2012:6-7), the opportunity of restoration of land trade between the Umayyads and the Tang government did not arise. At the same time, because of the Battle of Talas, the history of the two societies entered a new phase and the sea route inevitably replaced the land route. In Fig. 6, the beginning and end of these periods can be seen according to the dynasties that came to power in Iran and China, as well as the period of prosperity of each of the commercial centers in the Persian Gulf region and imported ceramics into these centers. According to Table 3, which shows the classification and chronology of the potteries, six types of porcelains have been identified as imported pottery at the same time (649 to 745 CE), considering that the number of these porcelains is limited and their distribution is not widespread in the entire region, determining their real date is unclear and cannot be mentioned as the official beginning of the pottery trade. 
 
2. Discussion
According to the evidence of the eighth century CE, sea travel in the Indian Ocean became the dominant method of direct and indirect communication between China and the Islamic World (Fig. 1). This alternation occurred simultaneously with the transfer of the capital to Baghdad, which was connected to Basra and the Persian Gulf through the Euphrates River. At this time (745 to 867 CE), the Abbasid government improved its relationship with the Tang government. But with Huang Chao’s rebellion, there was a long-term gap in direct long-distance maritime trade from 878 to 961 CE (Vosoughi,2017) causing trade to shift to Malay ports (Schottenhammer & 蕭婦, 2016: 137). In the Persian Gulf Region, Basra became less important due to a lack of proper management in development, population increase, and numerous unrests. The coins found at Siraf are a reminder of the increase in trade in the ninth century CE. At the same time, the Tang government started trading porcelains as goods (Guy,1990:9). The Belitung shipwreck is a clear example of the volume of Changsha pottery shipments at this period of time (Schottenhammer & 蕭婦, 2016: 151). Although the rebellion in China brought about instability and a decrease in direct relations, considerable volumes of imported ceramics have also been discovered at Siraf from this time period. The classification and chronology of the potteries of this site and the samples collected from the south of Iran show sixteen types of potteries (Table 3).
The third period (961 to about 1253 CE) happened after a recession. From the beginning of the fourth century and following the division of the Islamic World, the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt and Iranian governments in Iran began to rule. The people of Siraf were still playing a role in trade during this period. After a successful experience, this port went into decline and Kish quickly assumed the role of Siraf. Sohar and the port of Aden were under the control and rule of the Fatimids to obtain profits from trade (Vosoughi, 2017). At the same time, due to the Sriwijaya’s rule in the Strait of Malacca, direct communication with Chinese ports was disconnected. This process improved with the establishment of the Song Dynasty, and the kings of this dynasty made many facilities to encourage maritime trade (Medley, 1975:32). At this time, the Chinese government increased production for export and determined the flow of trade (Harrisson, 2003:99), encouraging the pottery trade to create balance in the trading business specially after 1111 CE (Guy, 1990:9). The classification and chronology of pottery types in the site of the Persian Gulf region (Table 3) shows sixteen types of imported pottery, which is a reminder of the encouragement of pottery trade during this era.
The process of dealings underwent major changes in the beginning of the thirteenth century AD with the formation of Mongol power and the occupation of China and Iran by Genghis and his successors. At this time, local governments played a special role in the process. Unlike Kish, Hormuz became a regional power and unlike Siraf, it became an independent base. In China, the Ming government replaced the Yuan Dynasty. Nevertheless, it still brought about the expansion of trade. These trans-regional connections changed with the arrival of the raiding Portuguese in the sixteenth century CE. Archeological studies show strong evidence of the volume of pottery imports in this period. The collection collected from Hormuz provides important information about the pottery trade in the second half of the seventh century later, between China and this region presented (Williamson, 1973: 56, m3, Morgan,1991:67). This date coincides with Zheng He’s trips to Hormuz (Meicun & Zhang, 2015:417), where coins were given as gifts by him. The samples obtained from Bahrain and Al-Qatif are reminders of this subject (Cribb and Potts, 1996:109). However, after his travels, there was a break until the presence of the Portuguese (Zhang, 2018:74). During this period, Chinese participation in the maritime trade of the Indian Ocean declined or did not exist at all (Lo, 1958:337-340). This decline may be due to the sea ban policy of the early Ming Dynasty, which was accompanied by great stagnation after 1407 AD. By the end of this century, China’s manufacturing industries were in severe decline, this is when the porcelain trade changed from celadon to blue and white potteries (Zhang, 2018:74).
 
3. Conclusion
Evidence suggests that historical accounts at times emphasize either a complete reversal or an indirect nature of commercial transactions. These shifts have had a direct impact on ceramic production in China, on patterns of export, the volume and variety of monetary exchanges, and even on the distribution of goods across the Persian Gulf region because of changing trade centers. Archaeological investigations have demonstrated that, although the demand for ceramics in this reciprocal exchange was largely unidirectional, ceramics remain the most reliable material evidence for reconstructing the processes of maritime trade. The data derived from ceramic finds can serve to confirm, challenge, or refine certain historical narratives, depending on their textual character. The chronological sequence of ceramic types rarely shows a clear break in importation, suggesting the need for further integrated and systematic research across the region particularly in light of the information presented in Figure 6.

Abstract Since the onset of the Enlightenment in the early 18th century, and the subsequent establishment of museums, galleries, and private collections, the acquisition of cultural artifacts to populate these institutions became imperative. However, this period also witnessed the emergence of counterfeit works, crafted in collaboration with specialists across various disciplines. A crucial inquiry arises regarding the identification of the methods and techniques employed by forgers, the recent surge in counterfeit production, and the detrimental impact of such works on archaeological studies and museum activities. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive examination of counterfeit works, tracing their origins in Iran, elucidating the typology of counterfeit objects, detailing the methods of forgery, and analyzing their dissemination to target audiences. Through a combination of library research and field studies, this investigation reveals that counterfeit works exploit historical and cultural significance, often leveraging contemporary scientific knowledge. The lack of precise discernment by target groups regarding these counterfeit works has facilitated their creation and distribution across three primary levels: 1) individuals seeking to amass wealth, 2) domestic enthusiasts of historical and cultural artifacts, and 3) galleries and foreign museums

Abstract The migration of Alid’s Sadat to Tabaristan and Daylam that was the result of pressure of the Abbasid caliphs, along with the subsequent uprising of Yahya bin Abdullah in Daylam led to the spread of Zaydi Shia in northern Iran. Taking advantage of the geographical isolation of these provinces and their distance from the central states, Alids succeeded in forming the first Shi’ite state of the Islamic caliphate without the permission of the Abbasids by attracting the support of the Ispahbads and local people. Hassan ibn Zayd became the leader of this new government, i.e. the Alids of Tabaristan, after the victory in Amol. Amol, Sari and Gorgan, along with the Daylam, were among the areas ruled by the Alids for about 20 years. Hassan ibn Zayd declared the Zaydi Shiite as the official religion of his government. One of the tools used by the Alids to legitimize their rule was their coins. Since coins are amongst the most authentic and significant archaeological evidences, this study has attempted to answer the question of how the Alid themes used on the coins differed from those used on the standard coins of the Abbasids and how the new verses were multiplied? The studying of the coins and historical sources indicates that the Alid of the Tabaristan with the aim of proving their political and religious legitimacy, deliberately minted coins containing verses of the Holy Quran, which were capable of interpreting the position of the Ahl al-Bayt and Jihad against the Abbasid caliphate. Thus, despite the fact that the Alid coins were quite similar in design to the Abbasid coinages, they were quite distinct as they conveyed such concepts as the support of the Prophet's Ahl al-Bayt, Shiite propaganda, and the opposition to the Abbasid caliphate.

Abstract As it appears from historical texts, the favourable bioclimatic conditions of the Natanz region and its location in the communication network of Iran’s central plateau, have provided the ground for the formation of numerous settlements, as well as diverse and yet valuable architectural works. Presence of pre-Islamic ancient sites (Such as Arisman ancient site, fire temple, castle, karezes) and also monuments from the Islamic era in Natanz (Such as Juma Mosque, Sheikh Abdul Samad Complex and collections of public, commercial and residential monuments), have turned this city into one of the most valuable ancient settlements in the country; highlighting the importance of the region from prehistoric up to the present century. According to published sources, Natanz's socio-political developments in early-Islamic centuries were influenced by the changes that occurred in the cities of Isfahan and Kashan. Also, the brilliant effects of the historical monuments of Kashan and Isfahan cities have caused the neglect of the monuments of the city of Natanz by tourists and historians of different periods. Neglect that has also affected archaeological, urban, architectural and historical research.  The authors have tried to determine the evolution of the city of Natanz, relying on the written sources, in order to identify the factors and events that have influenced the formation and development of this city. Results of the present study revealed that the construction history of this city can be traced back to the Sasanian Empire. Moreover, it became clear that Natanz’s location on the communication network of Iran’s central plateau and It has been one of the centers of caravans crossing and trade and the Central Plateau of Iran, and also its geographical location, environmental conditions and the special defensive function of the natanz city Its importance in different historical periods, especially the Ilkhanid and Safavid periods it has figured

Abstract The Old City of Sirjan site that is located about 11 km southeast of present-day Sirjan is the remains of the city from the Sassanid period to Middle Islamic centuries, which has been mentioned in historical and geographical sources as the capital of Kerman Province. All written historical sources highlight the political and cultural significance of this city in southeastern Iran in early Islamic centuries. Despite the fact that the Old City of Sirjan played a key role in the early Islamic centuries as the seat of Kerman province, archaeological studies on this city are still very rare. Written sources provide valuable information regarding this era; however, issues such as social structure, economic and cultural activities of the residents have been neglected. During the studies carried out by the authors of this paper on the arena of the city, considerable and variety of cultural material including pottery and glassware pieces were discovered. The volume variety of these discoveries raised questions as to the time and place of crafting, living of the craftsmen, industrial workshops, crafting and decoration techniques and artistic aspects of these remains. Current study aims to present the classification, typology and relative chronology of the glassware found in the arena of Old City of Sirjan this is done in order to determine their technical and decorative characteristics and compare the acquired data with those of the adjacent areas in the early Islamic centuries. The data were obtained through systematic surface survey and were evaluated using a descriptive-analytical methodology. The study revealed that the Old City of Sirjan glassware were produced through free blowing or blowing into the mould and were decorated through techniques such as moulded patterns, sculpture, carvings and stamping. The mass production of glassware in the old Sirjan proves that during 3rd - 5th AH, the city of Sirjan acted as the great prosperity center for glassware products

Abstract Architecture is among the important branches of art and civilization and architectural structures, beside their practical uses, have also served as the ground for the emergence of different arts and as indications of the grand status and glories of their founders. Among the various branches of architecture, tomb structures and funeral monuments have long played significant roles in culture, civilization and society of Iran and also have occupied an essential place in the history of our architecture. Therefore, beside the mosques, shrines have been the most popular public buildings in Iran and have entered the cultural tissues of Iranian life and society. A large portion of the evolution of architecture in Islamic era can be traced in the holy shrines and tombs. The formation, identity and being of these buildings are often closely connected with great local, national, political and religious leaders and characters. Thee architectural monuments also deserve scholarly studies in terms of their artistic, social, historical, cultural and religious aspects. Caring for shrines and building them is related to belief in hereafter, desire for immortality and love of followers and lovers of the deceased persons. Building of such places which come under various names such as “burial place”, “shrine”, “sanctuary”, “sanctum”, “receptacle”, “tomb”, “sepulcher”, “tower”, “imamzadeh”, etc. roughly began in 4^th century A H. and became then more prevalent is eastern and northern Iran through the practice and believes of various sects and dynasties. The process became especially popular during the Shite dynasties such as Alavids (250-360 A H), and Buwayhids (320-447 A. H.) whose political power and rule helped the building of such places, shrines and tombs more than ever. 
In the Islamic societies of middle centuries, shrines found a very high stature among the masses and ordinary religious people. Interestingly, building shrines for great religious and social leaders has been more passionately pursued in Iran than in other Islamic countries so that, Ernst Diez, the Austrian art historian, “such buildings are the most popular and prevalent in Islamic Iran.” In fact, it was for the grand status and importance of such places that the first major undertaking that kings did after succession, was erecting graves and shrines for themselves and their fathers and relatives so as to be redeemed by God and gain an everlasting fame and name. Regarding their shape and format, sepulchers are basically divided into two forms: tower tombs and non-tower (rectangles tombs). A large portion of the shrines in Islamic era are tower tombs which have different shapes such as circular, multisided  and finny, and also have common features such as a tall outside tower, and in them, emphasis is on the altitude not the extent of the building. Although some scholars have tried to work out a justification for the birth and building of tower tombs, none has ever come up with an all-satisfying evidence for the formation of such building along with the Islamic traditions governing them. In Hamadan province, Iran, there are some tower tombs from different Islamic eras, such as Ghorban Tower, Baba Hossein Tower in Malayer, Hayaquq Tower Tomb, etc. in the present study, we have undertaken to introduce one such tower tomb and describe its architectural and archeological characteristics; that is “Azhar Tower” that is located at the Dargazin section of Razan city, Hamadan Province. The city is situated at the north of Hamadan province and has many historical and cultural works belonging to different historical epochs, mostly Islamic era. The tower tomb with finny shape ,also called AzharImamzadeh, is one of the works from the Islamic era, but has not so far been comprehensively studied and there exists still many ambiguities about its history and being. The present study, thus, aims at considering the structural features of this building, its decorative elements, architectural innovations, and finding about the identity of the person buried under it. It also intends to consider this tomb as one of the few tower tombs with a finny shape and a star-like base for the tower, and comparing it with similar buildings in order to trace the mutual influences exchanged between it and similar forms both before and after its date. The research methodology applied for this purpose is an archeological case studythrough a descriptive-analytic study alongside using written sources such as historical and geographical documents and travelogues. The main questions posed by the project are: 1- in which historical age was the Azghar Tower built and with which similar architectural works can it be compared? 2- What are the innovations, and the architectural and decorative elements of the Tower? 3- Regarding the great importance of the Dargazin region in different historical eras, especially in middle Islamic epochs and the great sociopolitical people that have emerged in this region, what can be known about the identity of the person buried in there? The final results of the study show that the Azhar Tower Tomb dates back to the first half of the eighth century A. H. when the Ilkhanate (654-750 A H). Also, as the last tower shrine with a finny design in the history of Iranian Islamic architecture, it had been built based on the architectural and decorative forms dominant in the Ilkhanate age, and had been affected by some tower tombs in the central and northern parts of Iran, particularly, Imamzadeh Abdullah, and Ubayd Allah of Damavand, and the Bastam Tower. It is also most probable that the Azhar Tower was built for the burial of one of the outstanding man of the Dargazin region, named Sheik Sharaf-o-AldinDargazini.

Abstract Ziz is one of the important cities that Geographers and Historians have described it in the early centuries and Mid-Islamic period. Ziz was a city of the Arrajan Khore, which is located in the north-east of it. According to historical sources, it was located on the route of Arrajan to Esfahan and this city has pulpit and main (jamea) Mosque. This research is aimed to specify the exact geographical location of Ziz city. The authors of this paper applied descriptive–analytical approach and analysis of field study and documented data (literary sources) attempts to answers regarding question about ancient sites or site including the remains of ziz city? The results of field study and archaeological surveys and analysis of historical texts show that the geographical location of Ziz city is more likely the modern Boyerahmad city located in the Ziz area on the "Ziz Nesah" site.

Abstract According to many researches, the beliefs are the Influential factors in the architectural elements and city spaces through which the cities are known as reflection of resident’s beliefs and culture. Yazd city is one of the limited Islamic city that has maintained its old context and historical sectors. In present paper we tried, after the finding of effective Islamic laws and values in the shaping architectural spaces, the variability of using such laws were evaluated in one of the Qajary Quarters of Yazd city (Golchinan Quarter). In compliance theoretical results with the survey of the quarter it is become clear that the architectural and urban spaces (e.g. residential Architecture, Quarters, and network connections) have been highly by the Islamic values and laws. In other words, there is a high conformity between extracted Islamic Laws and whatever has been applied in the Qajary context of Yazd Islamic city.

Abstract Jundishapur is one of the towns with a rectangular plan, built by Shapur I in the north of the Kuzistan close to the Mansor River and like Bishapur, on one side is limited to the river, but here there is no fort and castle to protect the city. Archaeological studies in Jundishapur were carried out by mapping and aerial photography and systematic archaeological examination and a total of forty one point of occupation were identified. The abstract results of the index samples along with written sources made it clear that the establishment has continued throughout Christian centuries. The water flowed in the city from the Mansoor black harbor through the Jundishapur Bridge. Due to the decrease in water in the summer, a qanat was built in 14 km length from the Dez River to adjust and increase the water level of the Jundishapur River representing the efforts of Sasanians in the water supply system.

Abstract In the past two decades several new approaches have emerged in archeology. New archeology which found its true nature in deep interdisciplinary relations created new approaches involving different sciences such as basic, natural, engineering, laboratory, geographical, social, human, etc. Spatial archaeology is one of these new approaches. It is kind of recycling information of ancient civilizations through studying architectural structures, settlement spaces, and effective systems of inside/ outside the sites. Since this science studies architectural spaces and ancient contexts of different historical periods using different disciplines at different levels, it can be extensively used by experts in prehistoric and contemporary archeology. The present paper describes previous studies and theoretical foundations of such approach and attempts to explain its levels/ methods and answer how spatial archaeology can be used in the study and analysis of architectural spaces, settlements and ancient urban systems.

Abstract Although Ilkhanids (1256-1353 CE) initially selected Maraghe and then Tabriz as their capital, the thought of founding a new city as a symbol of their kingdom encouraged them to establish Soltanieh. Ghazan Khan’s goal of constructing the newly-built capital was accomplished during Uljayto’s kingdom; a project that lasted for about 10 years (704-713 AH). Although Soltanieh’s fast development made it as one of the most important cities of the world within a short period, the procedure of its destruction began after the invasion of Timur Gurkani (1389 AH), so far that no considerable trace remained of that massive capital except few. There are many questions about formation, operation, spatial organization, social structure of inhabitants of this Ilkhanid metropolis. The main aim of the present research is to find a reasonable answer to such questions based on the archeological evidences. Processes of establishment, development and destruction of this ancient mega city and a list of its destructive factors are offered at the conclusion of present paper.