Journal of Archaeological Studies

Settlement Patterns of the Prehistoric Cultures of the Western Karkheh River Basin during the Village Period

Ramin Yashmi; Farshid Iravani Ghadim; Rahmat Abbasnejad Seresti; Babak Rafiei Alavi

Volume 17, Issue 1 , June 2025, , Pages 37-78

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2024.382436.143297

Abstract

AbstractThe western side of the Karkheh River Basin, situated to the west of Greater Susiana, adjacent to the central Susiana plain, lies along a desert-plain ecotone. This ecological ... Read More AbstractThe western side of the Karkheh River Basin, situated to the west of Greater Susiana, adjacent to the central Susiana plain, lies along a desert-plain ecotone. This ecological zone benefits from a range of environmental resources, including the fertile lands of the Karkheh River Basin, streams, and pastures. It also encompasses settlements dating from the prehistoric, historic, and Islamic periods. The present study seeks to analyze the fundamental environmental and archaeological data from this western side of this region. By offering a comprehensive characterization of settlement patterns during the Village Period, this research aims to explore how dynamic landscape changes influenced these patterns throughout the period under investigation. Through an assessment of settlement configurations across various prehistoric periods, the study will present concrete examples to support a proposed definition of the settlement system in the region. To achieve this, identified settlements will be examined in relation to the distribution and extent of material culture and a chronological framework will be established for each geographical unit. Furthermore, by evaluating the environmental capacities of these units, the research will determine whether the settlement organization during each period can be characterized as centralized, or whether settlement formation followed a more decentralized pattern. Finally, the impact of landscape transformations on the regional settlement system will be analyzed by comparing reconstructed past landscapes to their present state.Keywords: Greater Susiana, Karkheh River Basin, Western Karkheh Region, Village Period, Settlement Patterns, Geomorphology, Palaeoenvironmental Changes. 1. IntroductionConsiderable efforts have been made to study Greater Susiana from the perspective of paleo-climatic reconstruction in archaeological studies, and to a somewhat lesser extent, the role of the reciprocal relationship between humans and the environment during the Initial, Early, Middle, and Late Village periods, which together form the Village Period sequence in this region (Adams 1962; Kouchoukos 1998; Alizadeh et al., 2004). Previous studies conducted in Greater Susiana have revealed the adaptability of human societies and their settlement distribution patterns relative to potential changes in the natural landscapes of this geographic zone (Kouchoukos 1998; Wright 2010; Moghaddam 2012; Rashidian 2020). The study of settlement distribution patterns in the relatively small plains west of the Karkheh River (the Western Karkheh Region, hereafter WKR), which are distinguished by their geomorphological features, forms the basis of this research (Map 1). Settlement is continuous in the region from the Late Neolithic period (Archaic Susiana Phase III) to the dawn of urbanization (Terminal Susa A) and can be assessed within the chronological framework of southwestern Iran (Chart 2). Therefore, the research questions of this study are as follows:1. How did the settlement system in the western plains of the Karkheh River Basin evolve during the Village Period?2. On what basis was the connection between Village Period sites of the Western Karkheh Region formed?3. What role do changes in the Karkheh River’s regime play in the establishment, occupational continuity, and the archaeological visibility of prehistoric sites in the Western Karkheh Region?The focal point of this study concerns the role of the Karkheh River in shaping prehistoric site formation and its taphonomic role in structuring how sites have been detected by previous field research. There can be no doubt of the role of geomorphological factors in both processes, particularly as regards the earliest periods in this sequence, i.e., the Initial and Early Village Period settlements (Late Neolithic period) in the northern plains of Khuzestan. 2. DiscussionIn the WKR region, remains have been documented from the final stage of the Initial Village period (corresponding to the Late Neolithic and the transitional phase from the Neolithic to Chalcolithic, i.e., the Choga Mami Transitional phase), the Middle Village period, and the Late Village period. Evidence from the Archaic Susiana Phase III has been observed thus far in at least three archaeological sites (Map 3: AS III). However, apart from a single piece of pottery at Tepe Ankoush in the Chenaneh Uplands and two other instances at the important archaeological site of Ishan Aswad in the Sorkheh Plain, no significant artifacts have been found in the collected assemblages that can confidently be dated to the following period, i.e., Early Susiana. It is possible that the aforementioned artifact could date back to the Archaic Susiana period. Additionally, while Adams (1962) attributes an archaeological site in this region to the Early Susiana period, none of these cases are sufficient to confirm the distribution of cultural remains from this period in the WKR region (Map 3: ES). A similar situation exists for the Early Middle Susiana period, as no cultural remains that can be definitively dated to this period were observed in the study. Only at Ishan Aswad, in the northernmost part of the study area, were three pottery pieces found that could be attributed to the Early Middle Susiana period. Given the flourishing of this site during later periods, it is possible that these two pieces were either produced and used as a continuation of earlier ceramic traditions during later times, or that older deposits, including those from the Early Middle Susiana period, were buried under newer layers (Map 3: EMS).Fifteen archaeological sites in the region west of the Karkheh River have been dated to the Late Middle Susiana period. The settlements of this period throughout the study area mainly follow a linear pattern along the Karkheh River from north to south. The only exception is Tepe Reqeyveh in the Dowsalaq Plain, which is a settlement from the Late Middle Susiana period located in the westernmost part of the study area (Map 3: LMS).The Late Susiana 1 period exhibits the most extensive settlement spatial distribution across the entire WKR region. Unlike the linear distribution pattern of the previous period, this period displays two types of settlement patterns: linear and clustered, on the eastern and western sides of the study area respectively. The linear pattern begins from the western bank of Karkheh in the Sorkheh Plain, includes the Chenaneh Uplands, and continues toward the easternmost part of the Bagheh Plain. The richness of the archaeological sites gradually decreases from north to south,. The Dowsalaq Plain, on the opposite side of the study area, shows a centralized cluster of settlements from this period. The southernmost identified settlement is Jali’eh Umm-ed-Dibis, which was a minor settlement during this period (Map 3: LS1).During the Late Susiana 2 period, the dual settlement pattern observed in the previous period persists; however, the settlement distribution is limited to the northern part of the study area, and no settlements from this period have been identified in the southern plains of Lekheizar, Bagheh, and Umm-ed-Dibis (Map 3: LS2). Although the former two plains, Lekheizar and Bagheh, also appear to have been unoccupied in previous periods and this condition continued into later Village periods, one must not overlook the impact of rapid or persistent climatic and environmental factors that may have altered the geomorphological conditions of these plains.The Terminal Susa A phase is the last period examined in this study in the region west of the Karkheh River. This period generally follows the patterns of the previous period. However, the number of settlements has significantly decreased, indicating a possible reduction in the population residing in the plains of the study area (Map 3: TS A). The only area that remained continuously inhabited throughout the entire Village period, flourishing and maintaining a significant population, is the extent of the Karkheh River’s alluvial fan in the Sorkheh Plain, which comprises the western terraces of the northernmost part of the study area. 3. Conclusion An analysis of changes in the morphology of the Karkheh River basin shows that the river has shifted its course at least three times westwards (Veenenbos 1956), transforming its wide floodplain into its current state with the gradual change of its course between 1500 BCE and 500 CE (Kirkby 1977). Beyond the crucial role this main channel has played in attracting and shaping the settlements on its western bank, it seems that the linear pattern of the eastern section of WKR Region is not related to the present flow of the river, but was formed on the western terraces when the Karkheh flowed through its ancient course, the Shaur River. Therefore, considering the potential that the area between the Shaur and Karkheh rivers may have had for the establishment of Village period settlements (Map 6), it seems that the remains of this period in the region may not necessarily provide an accurate reflection of the distribution of the sites and the Village period settlement systems in the Western Karkheh Region.

Late Chalcolithic to Late Bronze Age Settlement Patterns in the Gorgan Plain (ca. 3200-1600 BCE)

Kyle .G. Olson

Volume 16, Issue 2 , September 2024, , Pages 121-149

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2025.388987.143333

Abstract

The Gorgan Plain in Golestan Province is one of the most archaeologically rich regions in Iran. Given its favorable climate, the Gorgan Plain has been an attractive location for settlement ... Read More

Archaeological Survey and Analysis the Settlements of Hamedan Plain from the Beginning of the Islamic Period to the end of Safavid Period

Mohammad Shabani; Maryam Mohammadi

Volume 12, Issue 3 , December 2020, , Pages 117-141

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2020.272876.142661

Abstract

The Hamadan-Bahar Plain has been one of the most important center for human societies in the various periods, especially in the Islamic Period. The archaeological explorations of this ... Read More The Hamadan-Bahar Plain has been one of the most important center for human societies in the various periods, especially in the Islamic Period. The archaeological explorations of this plain was done in the years of 2006 and 2009. But for study and analyze the settlement pattern the Islamic Period and for answer to questions such as, what have been the most important factors for the formation of Islamic Period sites in the Hamedan Plain? And the main volume of Islamic settlements in the Hamedan Plain were have been related to which century of the Islamic period? this plain was reviewed in the year of 2015. The main purpose of this review is to identify the settlement patterns of Islamic sites in the Hamedan plain based on the review of identified sites. In this study, which was conducted in the field study and in the form of a marching, 14 sites were reviewed and 2 newly sites were discovered in the study area. In order to better understand the settlement patterns, spatial information of sites was entered in the GIS and then analyzed. Due to the importance of the position of pottery data in the relative chronology of a region, after studying the typology of pottery and recognizing the types of special pottery products, it was found that the Islamic sites of Hamedan Plain are scattered based on two factors: first fertile lands and second caravan routes. The presence of defensive features in some of the sites which adjacent to the caravan routes indicates the importance of this issue in the distribution of sites. In addition, the influence of significant sites such as Hegmataneh site as the central settlement of this plain in the Islamic period has been effective on a number of sites around it. The lowlands, north of the Alvand Mountain is one of the middle plain in the central Zagros Mountain which in the past was known as Hamedan Plain and today is known as Hamedan-Bahar Plain. (Figure 1). Archaeological studies show that the Hamedan-Bahar Plain with about 880 square kilometers has been one of the most important centers for the establishment of human societies in the prehistoric and historical periods. Studies on prehistoric and historical sites have clarified the course of human cultures of this plain during that periods, However, the lack of sufficient attention to the sites of the Islamic period and the findings related to this period have left many archeological angles of this period unknown. The archaeological explorations of this plain has been done in the years of 2006 and 2009. (Mohammadifar and Motarjem, 2006; Balmaky and Motarjem, 2009). During these studies, a large number of discovered sites have been introduced as sites of the Islamic period. The Intended plain in the form of a master's thesis, was reviewed in form of field study in the summer of 2015 for the aim of studying and analyzing the settlement patterns of the Islamic sites (in the time period from the beginning of the Islamic period to the end of the Safavid period) and to answer the questions such as; what have been the most important factors for formation of the Islamic Period sites in the Hamedan Plain? And the main volume of Islamic settlements in the Hamedan Plain were have been related to which century of the Islamic period? Due to insufficient attention to the artifacts and findings of the Islamic period, especially pottery in the surveys of previous years, out of about 50 identified sites, that were introduced as Islamic sites, only 14 sites had cultural artifacts belong to this period. During this review, two other newly Islamic sites discovered and a total of 16 sites were introduced as sites of the Islamic period. for better understand the settlement patterns, spatial information of sites such as; Geographical location, geological features, altitude, shape, area, access to water resources, access to the routes, etc. were entered in the GIS and then analyzed. Based on these studies, the Islamic sites of Hamedan-Bahar plain were divided into six groups (Figure 2). The first and second groups are related to sites that have been completely destroyed, due to the invasion of agricultural lands or relatively large amount of residential area, and very little evidence of these sites remains today. The third group are the sites, that are less than 10 meters high and less than one-hectare area. The next group is related to sites, that are more than 10 meters high and their areas are less than one-hectare. The sites of this group, like the previous group, do not have a clear and orderly shape. The fifth group is related to sites which have more than 10 meters high and have an area of more than one-hectare to 10 hectares. The shape of this group of sites is geometrically regular, such as squares and rectangles (Figure 7). In the survey of these sites the evidence of defensive fortifications has been seen. The last group is related to sites, that are more than 10 meters high and more than 10 hectares in area. (Table 1). The only settlement of this group is the Hegmataneh/Hamedan Mound, with an area of more than 34 hectares which is considered as the settlement center of the plain. The studies have shown that the sites of groups three and four, around 75% of the total identified sites, dedicated to themselves which are located in the area with very fertile land and often located next to a site with an area of more than one hectare and there are specific defense structures. (Figure 3 and 4). These sites are most likely belong to very small villages that are directly related to the surrounding agricultural lands to be affected by large sites that have a defensive structure. The sites with a defense structure, which are often more than one hectare, are located next to the entrance of caravan routes into the plain. (Figure 7). The existence of sites with defense structures inside the plain, in addition to emphasizing the importance of the transit position of the region, has also shown the existence of insecurity. Based on the analysis of spatial information, the Islamic sites of the Hamadan-Bahar plain are scattered based on two factors: fertile lands and caravan routes and the presence of defensive features in some of the settlements along the caravan routes, shows the importance of this issue in the distribution of sites. The collected pottery was carefully analyzed and their typological studies were carried out with well-known centers sites of the Islamic period. During the study more than 20 types of pottery were identified (Table 2). The discovery of a large amount of evidence of the production of pottery, welding furnaces and metal and glass ornaments of the Islamic period in the Zino-abad shows that this site and Hegmataneh/Hamedan were used as an industrial site in the Islamic period and most probably their products were exported to other sites. Existence of similar species of pottery from large known pottery centers such as the Sultanabad and Soltanieh with local products of the plain, most probably the pottery of these centers transported to the Hamedan region through known routes. According to the pottery data, all the Islamic sites studied have several settlement periods. It seems that the arrival of the Arabs in this region did not have much effect on the continuity of settlement, because the first centuries of the Islamic pottery was found in almost all the studied sites. More than 56% of the sites were inhabited between the 4th and 7th centuries AH. It seems that the region from the beginning of the fourth century AH with the rise of local governments such as the Buyid dynasty and especially from the second half of the fourth century during the Seljuk period, the goal of many economic reforms were to provide livelihood. The importance of the region in this period is such that Hamedan has been chosen as the capital for several years since the Seljuk period. After this period, despite devastating the Mongol invasions of this region, about 62% of the plains were inhabited. It seems that in this period, despite the negative effects of the Mongol invasions, due to the presence of high-ranking people, life in the region has flourished. With the savage invasions of the Timurid period and the conflicts of the Aq Qoyunlu and Kara Koyunlu dynasty in this region between the early 8th century and the early 10th century AH, many settlements were reduced to less than 19%. During this period many of the settlements that flourished in the previous period were abandoned forever. This trend is also seen with less intensity in the Safavid period. In this period, despite the relative attention to the Hamedan and possibly the surrounding areas, the settlement patterns of the plain do not change much compared to the previous period

Interaction Between Environment and Culture: Geographical Landscape and Archaeological Analysis of Bronze Age Settlements of Horand County

Sahar Bakhtiari; rouhollah shirazi; behrooz omrani; Reza Salmanpour

Volume 12, Issue 2 , September 2020, , Pages 61-81

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2020.250416.142529

Abstract

Horand County is located in the most eastern part of Eastern Azerbaijan Province and is perhaps one of the few areas of Iran where major archaeological activities have not yet been ... Read More

An Analysis of the Chalcolithic Settlement Patterns of Southern Roudbar Plain, Halilroud Basin

Ali Daneshi; Nasir Eskandari

Volume 10, Issue 2 , January 2019, , Pages 99-118

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.68530

Abstract

Roodbar plain and the mountainous surrounding areas of the southeast of Iran have long been a great place to establish the human settlements due to their suitable climate. Archaeological ... Read More

Archaeological Surveys in the East Azerbaijan: North of Namin, Ardebil Province

mohammad alizade; reza rezalo; karim hajizade; bheroz afkhmi

Volume 10, Issue 2 , January 2019, , Pages 221-238

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.68542

Abstract

Despite the valuable evidences in the northwestern Iran (Ardebil province) archaeology of this region is now remains unknown and its chronological order is located on the basis of the ... Read More

Bronze Age Settlement Patterns in the Silakhor Plain

Abbas moghaddam; abbas Nouri

Volume 9, Issue 2 , April 2018, , Pages 137-155

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2018.211247.142308

Abstract

The Silakhor Plain is one of the key plains in the eastern part of Central Zagros that its suitable environment made a significant base for human habitants since prehistoric time. This ... Read More

Hierarchical System and Spatial Distribution of Parthian Sites in the Sistan Plain

Zohre Jozi; Reza Mehr Afarin

Volume 5, Issue 2 , March 2014, , Pages 59-77

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2014.50394

Abstract

In Iranian archaeology, Sistan played an important role especially in the Parthian period. This region is well known since it was cross road for Greeksto reach the East, a place for ... Read More

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Keywords = Settlement Patterns

Settlement Patterns of the Prehistoric Cultures of the Western Karkheh River Basin during the Village Period

Abstract

Late Chalcolithic to Late Bronze Age Settlement Patterns in the Gorgan Plain (ca. 3200-1600 BCE)

Abstract

Archaeological Survey and Analysis the Settlements of Hamedan Plain from the Beginning of the Islamic Period to the end of Safavid Period

Abstract

Interaction Between Environment and Culture: Geographical Landscape and Archaeological Analysis of Bronze Age Settlements of Horand County

Abstract

An Analysis of the Chalcolithic Settlement Patterns of Southern Roudbar Plain, Halilroud Basin

Abstract

Archaeological Surveys in the East Azerbaijan: North of Namin, Ardebil Province

Abstract

Bronze Age Settlement Patterns in the Silakhor Plain

Abstract

Hierarchical System and Spatial Distribution of Parthian Sites in the Sistan Plain

Abstract