Journal of Archaeological Studies

Abstract Abstract
This study examines and classifies Iron Age pottery from Nay Tappeh, a site in the Gorgan Plain, the historically known region of Hyrcania (Varkaneh). Hyrcania, one of the most significant archaeological regions in the Iranian cultural sphere, has been the research focus for over a century. However, fundamental questions remain, particularly regarding Iron Age pottery’s forms, chronology, and cultural links to the region’s Bronze Age traditions. This article presents a detailed analysis of pottery recovered from rescue excavations at Nay Tappeh, conducted by J. Nokandeh. The study follows a three-stage methodology: classification, analysis, and interpretation. Its primary objective is to explore the relationship between Nay Tappeh’s pottery and Bronze Age Hyrcanian pottery while comparing it with Iron Age pottery from the Gorgan Plain, Dehistan, the Central Plateau, and other Iron Age archaeological regions of Iran. The ceramics from Nay Tappeh have been categorized into 25 main groups, classified under two broad types: open-mouthed and closed-mouthed vessels. These forms exhibit striking similarities with pottery from Archaic Dehistan, North Khorasan, Semnan, Mazandaran, Gilan, and western Iran. Comparative analysis suggests that the pottery of Nay Tappeh dates to the late Iron Age II, Iron Age III, and the early Achaemenid period. Despite gradual changes over time, these pottery forms maintain strong ties to Bronze Age traditions, reflecting a sense of cultural continuity in the region.
Keywords: Hyrcania, Bronze Age, Iron Age, Nay Tappeh, Pottery Classification. 
 
1. Introduction
The region of Varkaneh/Hyrcania (Fig. 1) is one of the most significant archaeological areas within the Iranian cultural sphere. Despite over a century of research, many fundamental questions remain unanswered, particularly regarding the comprehensive classification of Iron Age pottery and its chronological connection to the Bronze Age in the same region.
This article focuses on the classification of pottery recovered from rescue excavations at Nay Tappeh in the Gorgan Plain, conducted by J. Nokandeh. The excavation reached the natural soil layers, uncovering artifacts dating to the Iron Age (Fig. 2).
In archaeology, the study of pottery assemblages typically involves three stages: classification, analysis, and interpretation. While “classification” and “typology” are often used interchangeably, typology is generally considered a more specific form of classification. This study follows these three stages, giving special attention to the continuity of pottery forms from the first half of the second millennium BCE. This focus is driven by the striking similarities between the pottery of Nay Tappeh and that of Archaic Dehistan, which some scholars associate with earlier pottery traditions in the Gorgan Plain and surrounding regions. Additionally, this research seeks to explore the broader cultural geography of Iron Age pottery in the Gorgan Plain, Archaic Dehistan, and other key areas within the Iranian cultural sphere.
The value of this study lies in its potential to bridge gaps in our understanding of cultural transitions in Hyrcania, a region historically positioned at the crossroads of civilizations. By examining pottery forms, we can trace not only technological and artistic developments but also the movement of people and ideas across time and space.
 
2. Materials and Methods
This investigation combines a morphological analysis of pottery with the creation of a comparative database. The primary goal is to trace the evolution of Iron Age pottery forms from the Late Bronze Age by comparing them with earlier Hyrcanian pottery. Furthermore, the study compares pottery from Nay Tappeh with Iron Age assemblages from the Gorgan Plain, Dehistan, the Central Plateau, and western and northwestern Iran.
The research seeks to address three main questions: What are the formal similarities between Nay Tappeh pottery and Bronze Age Hyrcanian pottery? Based on comparative analysis, where does Nay Tappeh fit within the Iron Age chronology of Iran? How can the similarities and changes in pottery forms be interpreted in the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in this region? To achieve these objectives, the study employs a comparative approach based on typological analysis. Additionally, comparative studies have been conducted using pottery from sites excavated during the Gorgan Wall excavation projects. This integrated methodology provides a more comprehensive understanding of the pottery’s cultural and chronological context.
 
3. Data
Pottery constitutes the majority of artifacts found at Nay Tappeh and has been classified into 25 main groups based on morphology. These groups are divided into two primary categories: open-mouthed and close-mouthed vessels, with an additional category for kitchenware. These categories are then compared with Bronze Age pottery from Hyrcania and Iron Age pottery from northern Iran (Plates 1-3, Table 1).
The pottery forms from Nay Tappeh show remarkable similarities to those from ancient Dehistan and align closely with examples documented by scholars such as Arne (1945), Deshayes (1969), Olson and Thornton (2019), Schmidt (1937), Salzman (2014), Abbasi (2011), Mahforozi and Piller (2009), Ghasemi (2017), and Khlopin (1983, 2002). These scholars have identified similar forms in Late Bronze Age sites such as Shah Tappeh IIa, Turang Tappeh IIIc, Hesar IIIc, Narges Tappeh, and Gohar Tappeh. Notably, some forms resemble those attributed by Deshayes (1969) to the IIIb period of Tureng Tappeh, including dishes, simple and carinated bowls, bowls with obliquely cut rims, spouted bowls, deep bowls, lids, various pots, teapots, and kitchenware.
The pottery forms from Nay Tappeh also exhibit strong parallels with contemporaneous assemblages from Dehistan, North Khorasan, Semnan, Mazandaran, Gilan, the Central Plateau, and western and northwestern Iran. Additionally, two distinctive forms tripods and bowls with horizontal handles appear in the Nay Tappeh assemblage. These forms first emerged in the mid-second millennium BCE at sites such as Pardis and Seram on the Central Plateau.
The presence of these unique forms suggests a degree of regional specialization, possibly linked to specific functional or cultural practices. For example, tripods may have been used for cooking over open flames, while bowls with horizontal handles could have served ceremonial purposes. However, such interpretations require further contextual evidence to confirm.
Based on comparative analysis, the pottery from Nay Tappeh can be dated to the late Iron Age II, Iron Age III, and the early Achaemenid period (Table 1). At the same time, these forms demonstrate clear continuity with Bronze Age traditions despite undergoing evolutionary changes. If we rely solely on published pottery evidence and absolute dates, it appears that between approximately 2100 and 1600 BCE, Bronze Age cultures in the region maintained earlier pottery traditions while introducing new forms. However, this period also marked a transitional phase, often characterized as a decline, which eventually led to the emergence of Iron Age I. Following this transition, a gap of approximately 100 to 200 years is observed before the onset of Iron Age II and III cultures, which left a distinct archaeological footprint across the region.
 
4. Discussion
This study demonstrates that, despite gradual changes, the pottery forms from Nay Tappeh maintain a strong connection to Bronze Age traditions, reflecting cultural continuity in the region. The findings underscore the significance of Nay Tappeh as a key site for understanding the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in Hyrcania and its broader cultural connections within the Iranian sphere.
The pottery from Nay Tappeh provides valuable insights into the cultural and chronological developments in Hyrcania during this transition. The classification of 25 main groups of pottery, divided into open-mouthed and closed-mouthed vessels, reveals significant similarities with contemporaneous assemblages from Dehistan, North Khorasan, Semnan, Mazandaran, Gilan, and western Iran. The presence of distinctive forms, such as tripods and bowls with horizontal handles, further highlights the cultural interactions between the Gorgan Plain and the Central Plateau during the second millennium BCE.
One of the most intriguing aspects of this study is the evidence of cultural resilience in Hyrcania. Despite external influences and internal changes, the region’s pottery traditions exhibit a remarkable degree of continuity. This resilience may be attributed to the region’s geographical isolation, which allowed it to preserve its cultural identity while selectively adopting external innovations.
 
5. Conclusion
The dating of Nay Tappeh pottery to the late Iron Age II, Iron Age III, and early Achaemenid period, alongside its continuity with Bronze Age traditions, underscores the region’s cultural resilience and adaptability. This study not only contributes to the understanding of Iron Age pottery in Hyrcania but also emphasizes the need for further research to address unresolved questions regarding the region’s archaeological chronology and cultural geography.
Future research should focus on expanding the comparative database to include more sites from neighboring regions. Such approaches could provide deeper insights into the functional and symbolic roles of pottery in ancient Hyrcanian society.

Abstract The archaeological site of Khaneh-sar 1 represents a geological facies comprising Pleistocene deposits situated southeast of the Caspian Sea, approximately 700 meters east of Komishan Cave. Predominantly comprised of chert stone artifacts, with a minor portion characterized by fine-grained dark brown soil, which, in terms of density, type, and color, resembles paleosols within the loess layers prevalent in the region. Comparable geological deposits include those of the Early Khvalynian. Through the implementation of a Systematic Random Sampling method, a total of 4992 artifacts were recovered from this site. Given the inherent distinctions between Khaneh-sar 1, the Aurignacian of Garmrud-2, and the Zagros industries, the lithic assemblage analyzed in this study is identified as a local industry representative of the intermediate Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic era in Iran. Consequently, considering the techno-typological attributes, geological context, alongside late Pleistocene climatic events, the formation of Khaneh-sar 1 is postulated to have transpired during the late middle to early Upper Paleolithic period, coinciding with Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS3), Khvalynian transgressions, and the CB horizon of Neka Loess. Thus, the genesis of Khaneh-sar 1 can be traced back to the intermediate Middle-Upper Paleolithic, aligning with the MIS3

Abstract Copts are famous artists that are responsible for producing woven fabrics with warm and brilliant colors. During this period, we see the effectiveness of textiles as a means of expressing social status, communication and aesthetic values, which arises from their widespread integration into daily-life from a practical, social and economic-political point of view. Generally, the most important role of Coptic textiles was clothing, which in addition to the functional aspect in burials, provides a clear picture of the diversity of products, weavers skills and social status of individuals. Due to the importance of this fact, the method of covering and a strong desire for fashion is noteworthy. Meanwhile, change in style and weaving techniques follow the reflection of economic and industrial needs, in addition to supplying domestic and foreign markets, it served military needs as well. In this regard, a thorough understanding of the political as well as the import or export of the textiles, requires examination of the many occupations such as the weaving centers, economic factors and aspects of social life that lead to their production and use of the textiles at all levels of society. Therefore, what we are discussing with a historical-analytical approach in this essay is not restricted to the functions, finding place of the textile and the export of the textiles produced beyond the borders of the province but also the multilateral exchange of cultures are considered too. It can be clearly seen in the widespread popularity of some motives and decorative tapestry. This is because in the continuously evolving their production, coptic weavers not only managed to link the heritage of antique, late classical style in Egypt and Sassanian Persia to what the Arab conquerors brought, but also succeeded in leaving an enormous influence in the region of the Roman Empire and thus through the trade of textiles, succeeded in offering their art and textiles industry far and wide.

Abstract We are justlfied in our study of  Iran’s historical period by the invisible and clear vestiges of the mysterious Parthian empire, which has piqued the interest of a lot of historians and intellectuals. Parthian history has been disproved in numerous dimensions such as political dimensions, social dimensions, and cultural dimensions using contemporary research based on Greek, Roman, Armenian,Syriac, Middle Persian, and Islamic sources, as well as archeological evidence. On the basis of ancient historical writings, it is now possible to recreate a portion of the Parthian Empire’s history. Chronicles, written in Syriac, are among the most important historical sources for reconstructing ancient Near Eastern history. These sources are especially vital for refining pre-Islamic Iran’s history, as it would be pointless to write the history of Iran during the Sassanid era without utilizing Syriac resources. With these contexts in mind,the goal of this paper is to follow the Parthian rulers’ history through a variety of sources. When all of the available Syriac chronicles are taken into account, it becomes clear that these sources were mostly neglected by all of the Parthian rulers, and that no names or addresses can be located in them. At first glance, the absence of Parthian kings, history in Syriac sources suggests that there is no need to study these sources in relation to Parthian history; however, the opinion of this essay is that such a void to depict forgetting of the Parthian kings was not accidental in the Syriac sources, but rather was influenced by the tradition of Iranian historiography in the Sassanid (Sassanian)epoch,and since then the historical has been influenced by.

Abstract This article is the result of theoretical and preliminary studies of 240 Shekel (Siglo) coins of the Achaemenid Empire. This valuable collection was obtained by the police of Mazandaran province in 2010 from antique smugglers in Amol city. Currently, these very diverse and valuable coins, which were discovered from a place in the south of Iran and near the port of Assaluyeh, are kept in the Museum in Sari city. Because documenting coins in museums was limited to basic recordings, we had the opportunity to document all the coins in the collection for library studies and comparisons. Documentary of coins was done by measuring, weighing, hand drawing, computer drawing, photography and scanning. After this stage, the main questions and objectives of research were posed. Preliminary studies and comparisons confirmed the attribution of coins to the Achaemenid period. Also, the initial results of the documentation, that's mean examining the details of the image of the coins, including the crown, clothes, weapons, body shape and face details, showed differences in their minting and made it possible to compare them with referable samples. Although in this study, some materials have been proposed to confirm the authenticity and dating and identify the time range of the studied coins, nevertheless, accurate determination of their authenticity and scientific chronology will be possible after more accurate experiments.Coins were invented as a result of the development of societies and the economic needs of human beings. The first coins were minted by the Lydia government. Cyrus the Great, recognized the need to use it, but Darius I minted gold and silver coins for the first time in Iran. The gold coins were called "Darik" and the silver coins were called "Shekel" ) Siglo (. Shekel is a silver coin weighing 5.60 grams. During the Achaemenid period, four types of coinage were minted: 1- Imperial coin 2- Satrap coinage 3- State coins with the image of the emperor 4- Local coins or non-Iranian lands that were under Persian rule. Imperial coinage have no writing; Therefore, their classification needs to be carefully studied and compared with similar samples. The collection studied (Shekel), are under the group of Achaemenid imperial coins. Since the preliminary studies of this collection were very necessary to introduce it to the scientific community, so an attempt was made to make a comparative study of the coins of the Mazandaran Museum with the most important coins found from the Achaemenid period. Coins were studied and documented by referring to reliable sources. In this regard, for comparative studies based on comparison, the characteristics of coins including the appearance of persons on the coin, decorative motifs, Type of clothing and individual symptoms, with similar cases were considered. This almost tedious process eventually led to the creation of a framework for classifying the coins in question. Since the method of documenting these coins in the museum was limited to the initial recordings, due to the importance of the subject, we had the opportunity to conduct detailed studies to address the main questions and objectives of this study. The comparisons made on the coins of this collection confirmed their authenticity and attribution to the Achaemenid period, and the work of documenting showed the difference in their minting.At first, all the study documents, including the history and economic system of the Achaemenid kings, as well as sources about their cultural works, such as reliefs and seals, were collected. The oxide-coated sample was then purged. The oxide layer was then removed from the surface of a number of coins. After this step, the weight of the coins was measured with a digital scale and their diameter and thickness were measured with a caliper. In the next step, the back and front of the coins were photographed with a digital camera and scanner, and then they were technically drawn manually with the help of a computer. If the coin shapes were not obvious due to wear and tear, clear images were created with the help of Photoshop and inverter software for more accurate design. (Figure‌1). These coins are very simple and the main focus is on the image of the king. The king is armed with a bow, spear or dagger in these coins. With the exception of rare cases, there are depressions on the back of the coins. Sometimes signs and symbols are engraved on the back and on the coins (Figure 8).Achaemenid coins, while simple and similar, have a great variety. Different sources have dealt with their different types and forms as much as possible, but considering that a number of coins in the collection of the Mazandaran Museum in the city of Sari did not have known and completely similar examples, Therefore, they were studied, separated and compared with samples that had the least details in common. From the studies and comparisons made with the samples of other Achaemenid coins, results were obtained that created suitable grounds for identifying and classifying the coins of the Mazandaran Museum. Summary table attached, Comparison of Achaemenid coins of the collection with other coins discovered (Table 1). According to this research, 240 coins belonging to Achaemenid kings have been identified. Recognition of the amount and purity of coins, which is a good criterion for determining the authenticity of coins, was not tested in this study, but the weight of coins, which is usually the standard for mints, was tested. The weight of coins of Mazandaran collection is determined with an average of about 5.60 grams, which is the standard weight of Achaemenid coins. The results of studies have shown that among this collection, there are coins that are similar to known examples. Also, there are coins that do not have similar patterns. This study provided an opportunity to examine the details of the image of coins and compare them with other samples, to classify them and attribute them to one of the kings who owned the coin. shekel coins have a great variety in terms of the image. In other words, the coin of a king has been in different details, which has created different types. The reason for this diversity may have been the existence of multiple mints or the lack of oversight of coin makers. A number of these different species have been identified and introduced in the study collection in Mazandaran Museum One of the reasons for the value of the silver coins studied is that they are a collection. This collection, as a time capsule, introduces a time range with a specific beginning and end. In total, the coins of the seven kings have been identified from the coin-owning kings in this period. In this collection, from Darius I, which basically has three species, one species (Figure 8), from Xerxes, which has two different species, one species (Figure 11), from Artaxerxes I (Figure 14), Darius II (Figure 16) and Young Cyrus, one species (Figure 18), from Artaxerxes II, three species (Figure 22, 23, 24) and in Finally, two types of coins have been identified from Artaxerxes III (Figure 25, 26). According to the information obtained, the period of the study complex was related to the years 522 to 338 BC, which covers about 184 years of the Achaemenid Empire.

Abstract Abstract: Sar-e Pol-e Zahab region in the western of Central Zagros is located between Central Zagros highland and Mesopotamia and Khorasan high road as only western- eastern road passes from that. In other hand this road after passing Sar-e Pol-e Zahab enter to Qasr-e Shirin and Mesopotamia low lands. Therefore, this region is very important in archaeological studies of Central Zagros and Mesopotamia. However, unfortunately, a few archaeological researches have been done in this region. The present study aims in representing a perspective about the Sar-e Pol-e Zahab during the Akkadian period as well as reviewing the written documents regarding the mutual relations and Akkadian cylinder seals discovered in archeological excavations in order to help the interpretations about the presence of Akkadians in this region. In this paper we will discuss about the  Mountainous Passage of western Central Zagros and Khorasan High Road on the Akkadian Seals and will explain the loucation of Sar-e Pol-e Zahab on the Akkadian Seals.

Abstract This paper will suggest a hypothesis about the Early Bronze Age administrative organization of Chogha Maran and the Mahidasht in the West Central Zagros based on administrative evidence retrieved from the Early Bronze Age trash deposits excavated at the site of Chogha Maran and previous researches and fieldworks carried out in the region. Based on this hypothesis, in order to adapt to the socio-economic and political developments of the Late Forth and Early Third Millennium B.C. and trying to diversify their subsistence strategies, communities of the region developed a village based mixed economy involving settled farmer groups and mobile pastoralist groups who could exploit pastoralism potential of the mountainous environment of the region as well as reorganizing regional and interregional trade around the Khorasan Highroad. Administrative organization of the communities had to be adjusted to the absence of mobile groups in the village during some periods of the year, therefore, they constructed a communal administration in which each group of people could store their products, foodstuff and properties and access to them when they need. As a result, different groups of people, especially the mobile ones had the assurance that they could protect and control their belongings in the village. Testing the hypothesis requires further studies on the administrative evidence excavated at Chogha Maran as well as museum research and fieldworks.

Abstract The isotopic analysis solves many important issues in archeology and anthropology including the reconstruction of past diets, tracing the footsteps of the ancient migrations and recognition of climate change. Stable isotope analysis has been applied in archaeology during the last three decades to address questions regarding the paleoclimatology, palaeodietary and palaeomobility. In this research, we focus on the human skeleton remains of Iron Age cemetery of Gohar Tepe, using Strontium stable isotope analysis to reconstruction the aspects of the past mobility. At the same time we tried to identify the geographical origin of people that buried in residential areas or ancient cemeteries. This approach in a geological region could make a substantial contribution to assess various aspects including migration models, cultural changes, colonialism and trade. Also research related to the palaeomigration has long been done by different analytical methods. Gohar Tepe is one of the areas that able to respond multiple questions about social and cultural developments of Iron Age in northern Iran. Tooth samples obtained from skeletons of the mentioned site where studied through Strontium isotope ratio (87Sr/86Sr) were used to address the question of whether the skeletons are local or non-local. Result of 87Sr/86Sr revealed that six of samples could be considered as local and five others to have been c as non-local.

Abstract Considering the boom in the agricultural productions in the plains of Susiana, it seems that the proto-Elamite economic system is similar to that of feudal societies. In such a system, chiefdom organization and religious power had maintained a large part of capital resources such as land and water. But there have been evidence indicated that the exploitation of these resources have been awarded to other peoples. At the beginning of the Proto- Elamite texts some signs are visible but they may not convey a specific meaning, most researchers describe them to have been symbols for the economic enterprises. Firms that were related are partly to the system of production, distribution, service and trading systems. Some economic texts contained documentary signs indicating that economic activity is evidence and signs might be implemented by the above mentioned financial authorities. This may parallel with governmental institutions of Proto- Elamite, but as were witnessed from the texts in the beginning of this period these institutions coordinated the economy of the society. In this paper, the economic texts of Proto-Elamite on the tablets were studied and the evidence of corporation’s activity is investigated by providing some related examples.

Abstract The diagnostic Zagros highland MC I ceramic assemblage is called Dalma, after the type site of Dalma Tepe in the southern Lake Urmia basin of Azerbaijan. The remarkable issue about this period, however, is the widespread distribution of these ceramics. Chronologically, the Dalma tradition is dated back to fifth and fourth millennium B.C .in west of Iran. The Dalma type sites in northwest of Iran bearing four Dalma diagnostic wares but in central Zagros especially in interaction spheres with other pottery traditions Dalma contexts experienced more pottery types. For examples to the more eastern areas in Abhar plain or Sojasroud valley, besides these Dalma wares, small samples of Central Plateau painted wares also appeared. In this context potteries sub-divided into two main original Dalma wares and peripheral wares classes. In contrast to the more southern parts, Dalma diagnostic type turns into secondary pottery tradition. In this article XRF analysis was carried out on Soha Chai Tepe Dalma assemblages, to better understand the nature of their distribution and to further the understanding of interaction between two adjacent pottery traditions.

Abstract Nowadays, the isotopic analysis solves many important issues in archeology and anthropology including the reconstruction of past diets, tracing the footsteps of the ancient migrations and recognition of climatic change. Important topics of the past regime and dietary habits of ethnic groups cover many aspects of human life as determination of changes in the dietary systems plays an important role in the mechanisms of survival, social and economic organizations of past societies. Determination of differences in food sources of men and women of past archaeological sites can be used not only for the characterization of the various dietary systems of past humans but to identify the social status of gender as well as underlying family relations. The purpose of this paper is to investigate how isotopic analysis work to determine gender differences in dietary systems. For this through this study we specifically used the results of stable isotope nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) analysis of teeth samples recovered from the people buried in an Iranian Iron Age cemetery.

Abstract Archaeological investigations on the soil of archaeological sites indicates that human settlement and residence in a particular area, may lead to enrichment of certain elements such as phosphorus, magnesium, calcium and potassium, due to the production of rubbish, waste, domestic and industrial waste and many other cases. Investigation the range of elements in the soils, make it possible to identify different types of activities that have been carried out in the ancient times. In this research we selected Tape Zaghe to evaluate and identify some particular places in this mound during the Chalcolithic period. Through a field survey classified soil samples have been extracted from different layers of its settlement. For elemental analysis of samples we used «XRF» method and for the classification of elements, multivariate statistical methods were performed. The analysis of samples showed high concentration of some elements in the different parts of the Zaghe site. By comparing elemental concentrations of the samples as well as control samples that were taken from the different parts of the mound, we could identify the places that some special activities for example cooking of pottery, food preparation and consumption and burial practice were accomplished. Finding out the process of starting various specialized production activities in Chalcolithic society of Zaghe would lead to the proposition that the deep social and economic changes occurred in Zaghe from Neolithic to Chalcolithic as the particular activity places of Chalcolithic Zaghe indicated.      

Abstract One of the cultural characteristics of eastern zone at central part of Zagros Range during 3rd millennium BC and at early Bronze Age is the extension of the related habitats to Yaniq Culture (Ancient City near Abhar) in this region. Within field study conducted in 2008 in the plains covering central Zagros eastern side that is situated in Alvan Basin, we managed to identify more than habitats relating to Early Bronze Age. According to analysis done on the data derived from this survey in GIS software environment and by adaption of statistical methods, the relationship between site of habitat and its ecological factors has been assessed. Based on design of this model, we managed to interpret some reason for creation of settlements in this region during Early Bronze Age as well as the existing relationship among the given habitats and archaic routes passed between Iranian Plateau and Mesopotamia at 3rd millienium BC. Using GIS software made it possible for us to identify the reason for many settlement displacements based on archeological evidences at Early Bronze Age so that to describe their settlement models. We can purpose this point, as result of this study, that one may suggest a type of pseudo- nomadic and dry- farming system as economic system for people at Early Broze Age within a limited scale in this region.