Journal of Archaeological Studies

Abstract The Bawa Yawan rockshelter and cave complex, located in the west-central Zagros region of Iran, stands out as a significant Paleolithic site due to its spanning the three periods of the Middle Paleolithic, Upper Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic. This site exhibits a wide range of lithic artifacts, which were used by Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans between ca. 83-13.4 kya (TU / OSL Dating). In this study, we present preliminary results from macroscopic analysis of approximately 1000 lithic artefacts. Our initial findings indicate that over 99% of the utilized raw stones materials belong to the micro-cryptocrystalline sedimentary rock category, primarily due to their widespread availability. Less than 1% of the material fall into other categories, such as metamorphic and igneous rocks. The main results of this research indicate that the Middle Paleolithic groups (Neanderthals) used a more diverse range of raw stone materials than later groups. In contrast to the Upper Paleolithic to Epipaleolithic periods, people (Homo sapiens) become more specialized in the use of higher quality resources. This finding shows a relative difference in lithic raw material procurement strategies among Neanderthals and Homo Sapiens in the study area.

Abstract The Posht-e Forudgah Malayer mound, located on the Malayer Plain in the Central Zagros, represents semi-nomadic communities whose subsistence economy during the Late Neolithic was based primarily on pastoralism. In this period, the integration of agricultural and herding practices encouraged the expansion and diversification of tools crafted from stone and, notably, from animal bone. Bone’s flexibility, workability, strength, and accessibility made it a crucial raw material in Neolithic daily life. This study examines a small assemblage of bone tools of varied sizes, morphologies, and functions recovered from Posht-e Forudgah. A descriptive-analytical and comparative approach was undertaken, juxtaposing these artifacts with assemblages from other Late Neolithic sites in the Central Zagros. The research addresses three questions: 1) What morphological and functional characteristics do the Posht-e Forudgah bone tools exhibit? 2) Based on structural features, what roles did they have in the lives of nomadic or semi-nomadic communities? 3) Do they show structural or functional affinities with tools from contemporary, horizon-sharing sites? The objectives include analyzing morphology, investigating the toolmakers’ technological skills, and assessing probable functions supported by experimental archaeological studies. The findings indicate predominantly conical-bodied, pointed, and polished tools, with wear traces revealing repeated use. Such patterns suggest specialized production, informed by accurate knowledge of bone properties and by a technological system embedded in the dynamic social structure of Late Neolithic semi-nomadic pastoralists. By studying these tools, the research contributes to reconstructing aspects of subsistence, offering insight into social organization, and deepening understanding of bone implement manufacture and uses—especially awls and needles—within nomadic Neolithic societies.

Abstract One of the most significant Neolithic sites in southwestern Syria is Tell Aswad. This site was excavated by DeContenson and Stordeur, and a limited number of pottery sherds were recovered. The excavators initially attributed the pottery sherds from Tell Aswad to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) period. However, typological studies conducted by the authors revealed that these sherds can be assigned to the Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Bronze Age, and historical periods. The primary objective of this research is to establish a typology of Tell Aswad pottery based on form and manufacturing techniques. Additionally, the study aims to determine the precise dating of the Tell Aswad pottery using both pottery analysis and the thermoluminescence dating method. To achieve this, the research seeks to address the following questions: How can the Tell Aswad pottery be explained in terms of typology and structure? How can an absolute dating be provided for Tell Aswad, determined using the thermoluminescence technique? In this study, a typological analysis based on form and construction techniques, combined with thermoluminescence testing, was conducted. The pottery findings from Tell Aswad were analyzed based on their form and construction techniques. The results revealed that the pottery from this site exhibits a limited variety in terms of form and decorative techniques. However, in terms of construction techniques, it appears that the potters of Tell Aswad possessed a high level of expertise in pottery-making. Based on the thermoluminescence dating results, it can be concluded that while settlement in Tell Aswad began during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) period, the pottery findings represent occupation periods ranging from the Neolithic up to the historical period.

Abstract Based on archaeological evidence, during the mid and late fourth millennium BCE, Godin Tepe lacked hallmark Uruk material culture (such as distinctive pottery, specific architecture, or administrative technologies), and thus cannot be identified as a purely Uruk trading outpost. The discovery of tablets with layouts and structures closely resembling Proto-Elamite texts indicates the existence of a local administrative system linked to the management of highland community resources, integrating Godin Tepe into the wider Proto-Elamite economic network. The complementary functions of pastoral nomadism (livestock products and transport services) and sedentary agriculture (agricultural produce and handicrafts) suggest that Godin Tepe acted as a conduit for regional exchange and a seasonal gathering place for nomadic groups. Findings such as the coexistence of Susa II economic tablets and formative Proto-Elamite types, the presence of pottery from the highlands and the central plateau, and the application of standard Proto-Elamite architecture reinforce the site’s role as a multi-cultural commercial hub and a meeting point for administrative technologies (including economic tablets and sealings). Additionally, storage facilities and large jars underline Godin’s function in warehousing and distribution. Chronologically, the material culture of Godin VI:1 bridges the gap between Susa II and Susa III and documents the initial stage of Proto-Elamite formation (ca. 3500–3200 BCE), marking the transformation from purely numerical tablets to fully developed Proto-Elamite texts. This “Formative Proto-Elamite” phase is defined by administrative innovations, cultural diversity, and expanded regional interaction, occurring in parallel with the ongoing Uruk/Susa II culture. Collectively, the evidence positions Godin Tepe not as a peripheral Uruk outpost, but as an active commercial center for Proto-Elamite pastoral nomads, with a central role in the development of administrative systems.

Abstract This article is devoted to analyzing the role of stone as a symbolic substitute for the body of the deceased in the funerary practices of the Srubnaya-Andronovo cultural circle during the Late Bronze Age in the Southern Urals. The research is based on materials from the Kashkarovsky kurgan burial ground (Bashkir Trans-Urals), particularly Burial 3 of Kurgan 5, where an anthropomorphic stone stele was discovered and interpreted as the central element of a cenotaph. It is suggested that, in this context, the stone fulfilled a certain sacred function and also served as a substitute for the absent body of the deceased. The study presents a typology of similar complexes, distinguishing four groups based on the intentional placement and characteristics of stones in burial pits. Group A includes stele-like stones in burial pits; Group B consists of individual stones deliberately laid at the bottom of the burial pit, sometimes imitating a flexed body position; Groups C and D comprise cenotaphs with several stones or single slabs at the bottom of the grave. The burial pit with a stone stele at the Kashkarovsky burial ground is, in fact, a unique funerary cenotaph complex in which the deliberate placement of a stone at the bottom can be confidently associated with the ritual of substituting for the bodies of the deceased. The limited number of analogies points to the atypical nature of this rite in the funerary practice of the Srubnaya-Andronovo population of the Late Bronze Age Southern Ural forest-steppe. The origin of the tradition remains unclear; however, its connection with the Alakul-Fedorovo funerary traditions of sites in the Southern Urals and Kazakhstan has been identified. Confirmation of this hypothesis requires an expansion of the archaeological source base.

Abstract The figure of Nebuchadnezzar II continues to fascinate scholars precisely because of the striking contradictions in how different sources remember him. While Babylonian records celebrate a pious king and master builder, biblical texts cast him alternately as God’s instrument of judgment and a symbol of tyrannical pride. This study aims to unravel these competing narratives, examining how the trauma of exile has shaped Jewish memory and how theological concerns have influenced historical accounts. Rather than simply cataloging different perspectives, I argue that understanding Nebuchadnezzar requires recognizing how the Babylonian exile became a defining moment that fundamentally transformed Jewish identity. The destruction of the First Temple was not merely a political catastrophe—it forced an entire people to reimagine their relationship with the divine. The figure of Nebuchadnezzar, whether depicted as a divine agent or an arrogant tyrant, served the needs of different communities to make sense of this upheaval. Through careful analysis of Babylonian administrative records, biblical literature, and the later Islamic sources, this research reveals how historical memory gets constructed and reconstructed across cultures. The supposed “religious conversion” of Nebuchadnezzar in Daniel, I contend, tells us more about the theological struggles of the exiled Jews than about any genuine spiritual transformation of the Babylonian king.

Abstract Radiocarbon dating is a fundamental method employed in archaeological, historical, and paleographic research to determine the chronological framework of findings. This article discusses the results of radiocarbon dating analyses conducted on human remains recovered from six graves excavated during the fourth season of the Mersinchal Archaeological Project. The Mersinchal Cemetery is located in Telajim Village, Mehdi Shahar County, Semnan Province, Iran. Four seasons of archaeological excavations have been conducted at this site, leading to the proposal of a relative dating for the cemetery, attributed to the late first millennium BC, based on the analysis of the findings. This article adopts a research methodology that integrates both fieldwork and laboratory analysis. During the fieldwork phase, burial practices and graves Finds were carefully examined and systematically documented. Human samples were selected for further scientific analysis. In the laboratory phase, six human skeletal samples discovered during the fourth season of excavations at the Mersinchal cemetery were analyzed for absolute dating using radiocarbon (14C) techniques and employing the Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) method. The main purpose of this article is to establish an absolute chronology for the Mersinchal cemetery and answer some fundamental questions, including: To which cultural periods does this cemetery belong? What do burial practices and the associated findings within the graves? And what insights can be gained about their diet? The radiocarbon dating results indicate that this cemetery was used between 409 BC to 51 BCE, corresponding to Achaemenid, Seleucid, and Parthian periods. Interestingly, the burial practices and objects inside the graves remained consistent throughout these periods, showing no significant change over time. The isotopic values of the individuals indicated that their diet, influenced by local agriculture, consisted of both C3 and C4 plants. Animal proteins, including meat and dairy products, were also included in the diet.

Abstract This article investigates the historical evolution of the names attributed to Persepolis, one of Iran’s most prominent archaeological sites. The study addresses a central problem in historical and cultural scholarship: how the shifting nomenclature of ancient monuments reflects broader transformations in collective memory, ideology, and identity. The primary aim is to trace how various names—from Pārsih in Achaemenid inscriptions to the popular Takht-i Jamshīd—were shaped by different historical, religious, and cultural discourses over time. Using a multidisciplinary research method that integrates philological analysis, historical contextualization, and archaeological interpretation, the article draws on diverse sources, including royal inscriptions, classical and Islamic historiography, travelers’ narratives, and mythological literature. Special emphasis is placed on the reinterpretation of Persepolis in Persian epic traditions and Islamic texts, where the site was often portrayed as the throne of the mythic king Jamshīd or a symbol of divine kingship.The research highlights a major turning point in the modern period, when advances in archaeology—particularly the decipherment of cuneiform inscriptions—corrected long-standing misconceptions and re-established the site’s original name, Pārsih, as used by its Achaemenid builders. The findings underscore that the naming history of Persepolis is not merely a semantic curiosity, but a vital lens through which societies recall, reinterpret, and reconstruct their past. By situating this onomastic history within broader debates on heritage, memory, and historiography, the article contributes to a deeper understanding of the cultural processes that define and redefine historical identity.

Abstract The Sheikh Makan structure in Ilam Province represents one of the most debated architectural remains from the Sasanian period, consistently drawing scholarly attention and controversy. This study employs a systematic methodology to analyze the site’s architectural features, construction techniques, and archaeological context in order to determine its primary function. The rectangular complex comprises a central domed chamber, a vaulted iwan, and integrated hydraulic channels elements characteristic of industrial architecture, particularly watermill infrastructure. Notably, the structure lacks key markers typically associated with Sasanian religious architecture, such as circumambulatory corridors, fire temple, and the canonical north-south sacred orientation. In contrast, the building displays unmistakable industrial features, including flour production mechanisms and milling apparatus. A comparative analysis with established Sasanian religious complexes most notably the Negar Fire Temple and the Espakho Temple reveals significant divergences in spatial organization and intended use. Archaeological evidence, supplemented by ethnoarchaeological data, supports the hypothesis of its prolonged use as a hydraulic mill, indicating the functional adaptation of a Sasanian-era construction during later periods. The site’s strategic location adjacent to defensive structures and historical trade routes further underscores its economic rather than religious significance. Although some scholars, have proposed a sacred function for the site (suggesting it may have served as a fire temple), the present study definitively identifies the structure’s primary role as an industrial facility. It thus offers a paradigmatic example of Sasanian architectural repurposing in the Islamic era. These findings underscore the need for targeted archaeological excavations to resolve existing chronological ambiguities and to trace the developmental trajectory of the building within the broader framework of Iranian architectural history. Ultimately, this research makes a significant contribution to understanding the functional transformation of built environments and the complex interplay between sacred and utilitarian spaces in post-Sasanian Iran.

Abstract Sogdiana was one of the oldest city-states in Eastern Iran, and it was located along the ancient Silk Road. According to historical records and archaeological materials, numerous Sogdian tombs have been discovered in Western China. It appears that these tombs were constructed by Sogdians living in the area. The examination of these artefacts indicates the use of Iranian-Chinese architectural styles. Historical documents and Chinese texts suggest that Sogdians entered China as government officials, merchants, and others, establishing family-run businesses in this region. These enterprises played a significant role in trade, culture, history, religion, and more. Archaeological discoveries in the central plains of China have notably reinforced the strategic importance and role played by the Sogdians and Sogdian cities in these exchanges. Given the significance of this topic and the rich information available in the Chinese literature, this article compiles the excavated Chinese tombs and analyzes these data. This section explores how the Sogdians became one of the most influential ethnic groups in the political, economic, social, religious, linguistic, and cultural changes of Chinese dynasties over time, alongside other cities in Western China. 

Abstract Forg Castle is a mountain fortress dating back to the Late Islamic period (from the Afsharid to the Qajar era). Due to its strategic location and unique architecture, the castle has always attracted attention and necessitates precise documentation using modern methods. Drone photogrammetry is one of the modern technologies that, with the advancement of technology in recent decades, has become increasingly used in this type of study. Whether used alone or in combination with other techniques, it has been widely employed in the 3D modeling of immovable cultural heritage and archaeological sites. This technology creates accurate and photorealistic 3D models of historical structures and sites using 2D images. Such documentation is valuable for conservation efforts and sustainable development. The present applied research was conducted with the aim of assessing the capabilities of drone photogrammetry in a mountainous castle with significant elevation differences. The study focused on modeling Forg Castle for documentation and the creation of a 3D map. It was carried out in three stages: fieldwork, software processing, and archival research, using an analytical approach. As a result, a 3D model of the mountainous Forg Castle was produced with true texture and a Ground Sample Distance (GSD) of 0.97 centimeters per pixel. The accuracy of the results was evaluated using four ground control points (GCPs) and three check points, indicating the high performance of drone photogrammetry as a fast and effective method for the documentation and 3D modeling of mountainous castles and their architectural features despite elevation differences with a ground accuracy of 6.2 centimeters.

Abstract This study adopts a data-driven framework to investigate regional variation in Levallois core technology, aiming to assess the stability of flaking techniques and the diversity of technological exchange across Russia, Mongolia, and northern China. Guided by Boëda’s comprehensive typology, cores are first classified into preferential, centripetal, bipolar, and unipolar types, then quantitatively analysed through two-dimensional lithic-image analysis. In Mongolia, preferential and centripetal Levallois sequences are mature and stable: scar-density indices at all sampled sites exceed 60%, and coefficients of variation remain low, demonstrating highly standardised reduction concepts. In contrast, Russian assemblages exhibit pronounced inter-site heterogeneity; centripetal cores from Anui-1 are remarkably consistent, whereas contemporaneous layers at Kara-Bom display wide metrical dispersion. At Shuidonggou in China, the overall technological level is slightly lower, yet Layers 7 and 6 clearly inherit technical traits from underlying Layer 8, implying in-situ continuity rather than abrupt replacement. At Tongtian Cave in western China, cores show markedly lower scar coverage and smaller detached-flake areas, indicating a lower degree of technical mastery than at the more centrally located Shuidonggou site. Russian bipolar Levallois shows limited affinity with Chinese counterparts, whereas centripetal cores from Kara-Tenesh cluster tightly with Shuidonggou Layer 7. Crucially, within single Chinese sites different stratigraphic layers alternately align with Mongolian or Russian traditions, evidencing repeated episodes of introduction, assimilation, and re-innovation. In sum, Levallois technology entered China not through a single corridor but via multiple temporally staggered pathways. Chinese Levallois origins are polygenic, and several dispersal routes likely operated across northern Eurasia. Rather than a unidirectional corridor, the region functioned as a reticulated, continuously interacting technological landscape.