Journal of Archaeological Studies

Abstract According to historical evidence, during the Iron Age III period the southern shores of Lake Urmia were a place where many tribes lived, politically divided among small kingdoms whose political boundaries changed with the conflicts over the region between the regional powers of Assyria and Urartu. The Mahabad area, which despite its importance in archeological studies of Iron Age III, has been under-investigated. In April 2016, during the investigation of the central part of Mahabad city, a total of 24 areas dating to this period were identified. The most important questions of this study are: (1) What is the structure and extent of the Iron III settlements in the Mahabad plain, and (2) What kind of cultural exchanges and interactions took place between the different areas of the Mahabad plain with neighboring areas during this period? The results of these investigations show that these areas take three primary forms: a) areas with stone architecture, b) cemeteries, and c) settlement mounds. The typology of the ceramics recovered from this fieldwork suggests that the Mahabad plain had extra-regional cultural relations during this period, in addition to connections with the western regions of Iran.

Abstract Tombstones in cemeteries are perhaps one of the most semantically complex human works of art. Tombstones deal with the most important and most painful event in human life, namely death and the hereafter. Tombstones exhibit great variety, both in general form and in their decorative motifs. Studying the morphology of the gravestones and exploring the human, animal, vegetal, geometric and other images, together they provide valuable information on Iranian-Islamic religious beliefs and historical sociology. Tombstones vary signficantly according to the religious beliefs and the culture and geography of each region. In the group of tombstones analyzed in this paper the most important,  from the point of view of visual semantics and mythological beliefs, are rams and stone lions. This group of tombstones are generally found in the western half of Iran, especially in the northwest and west of Iran. This paper is a descriptive-analytical study of field and library studies, seeking to discover the congruence between tombstone form and motifs and ornaments, i.e., the relationship between meanings and patterns in gravestones and lion-like stones found in cemeteries of the era of Islam in Iran. Studies show that the ram and lion tombstones themselves are symbols of greatness, bravery, heroism, greatness and courage, and all the sub-motifs on the body of these works also somehow reflect these traits and meanings, and they are completely dependent on the volume or morphology of the tombstones. Finally, it can be concluded that the stone carving artist has chosen these motifs with full knowledge of the meanings of the shape of the tombstones as well as the motifs placed on them. Therefore, he has been looking for the connection and dependence between form and image in his artwork.

Abstract The eastern side of Central Zagros is one of the most important areas in the Neolithic development, which has remained unknown in terms of its common cultural tradition as requires more in detail studies. Among these unknowns, “Malayer Plain”  is associated with the effects of the “Late Neolithic” period Traditions. In terms of role and color, this is a part of the 6^th Millennium B.C., which due to the evolution of Pottery-making can be distinguished from the earlier periods. One of the most important pottery traditions is Sarab-Style, which is a pivot point to the recognition of the Late Neolithic of Central Zagros. This type of pottery has been identified along the eastern boundaries of Central Zagros on Malayer plain. This cultural region is considered as a blind spot of Neolithic studies due to the lack of question-oriented studies. The present research is based on the of Trench I & II excavation of the Tappeh Posht-e Forodgah studying the presence of Late Neolithic tradition  on the Malayer plain, answering the question: What are the common Neolithic cultures of the Malayer Plain and by which  common Late Neolithic cultural traditions of the Central Zagros has affected? In order to analyze the stratigraphy of the settlements formed at the Tappeh Posht-e Forodgah, a complete view of the Neolithic sequence on the eastern boundaries of Central Zagros, an excavation of the Posht-e Forodgah Site was carried out. How that two traditions of pottery or domestic or non-domestic potteries were common in this region simultanously; Eventually, the impact of the Late Neolithic period and common cultural traditions of Kermanshah plain (Segabi, Syahbid and Sarab) and Lurestan (Qelagap) on the Malayer Plain have been attested.

Abstract Archaeological studies of ancient cities have a significant role in understanding their formation, their development, the fall and destruction in different historical periods. According to the historical sources (the 10^th to 14^th century A.D) there has been an ancient city named Shapurkhast on the western of Iran, which its history dates back to Sasanian era. In these sources, the city has constructed by Shapur I (240-272 A.D). Life in the city had continued during the Islamic period until the 14^th A.D. The city reached its peak in the 11^th century AD. The remnants of the old city have been founded at south-eastern parts of the modern city of Khorram Abad especially from the excavations in 2007. The present research analyses the data derived from the historical resources and archaeological evidences in order to study and investigate the factors in settling in the area. This study deals with the formation, development and prosperity and then the fall of Shapurkhast city. The results of this study imply that the main period of occupation of Shapurkhast was Islamic era that its foundation has been made at pre-Islamic periods, and probably even Parthian era. Having appropriate environmental conditions and also lying at the middle of west to east and north to south communication routes, the south plain of Khorram Abad has potentially provided suitable living conditions for forming the city. It seems that Shapurkhast has been abandoned at the 13^th or 14^th A.D and modern Khorram Abad began to function as the central town of the region. Environmental and ecological conditions are the most important factors for the collapse of the city.
The present study is based on a "holistic" approach and based on two categories of historical and archaeological information which has provided new information about one of the early Islamic cities in Iran. The data is based on historic sources from the 10^th to 14^th AD, and archaeological evidences from the excavation at southeastern Khorram Abad in 2007 and then archaeological surveys at Khorram Abad gorge in 2000 and 2016.
The most important questions in this research are the following:
1. When did the settlement in the city of Shapur Khasta begin and what were the reasons for the formation of the city?
2. In what period and based on which components are the peak of prosperity and urban development introduced?
3. What were the factors that cause the collapse and fall of the city in the Middle of Islamic period and the transfer of its population to the northwest of the town?
The research hypothesis is that Shapurkhast city was an important early Islamic city, which its foundation was made before of Islamic period. There has not been much research about the city of Shapurkhast from the formation to the fall. Additionally, available researches are relatively old and no new comprehensive research has been done on the city with archaeological viewpoint, and some of the reports have not been published. Therefore, we will try to use archaeological evidences, written sources and the historical maps aiming to provide suitable information about one of the unknown cities in Iran.
 Urban development and urbanization was formed as a manifestation of the power of the Sassanid Empire in Iran and in competition with the Roman Empire (Moqimizade, 2017). the development of urban settlements has been subject to environmental, economic and social conditions; That is, urban settlements were centers of communication, recreation, and redistribution of commercial goods to subordinate cities and states. Around the city of Shapurkhast; Suitable ecological substrates including important Zagros highlands around, rich water resources especially KhorramAbad and Karganeh rivers, flat and fertile plain south of the valley, and most importantly being located in the east-west and north-south communication routes from The main factors in the formation of settlements in the south of Khorramabad valley, followed by the formation of urban settlements. We know very little about the formation of the city. Due to the development of the Silk Road in the Parthian period and the location of the city in the communication routes east and west of the region and south to north, the urban life of Shapurkhast city probably took place in the Parthian period. Due to the existence use of the name "Shapur" in archaeological evidence, this city was developed during the Sassanid period. The existence and permanence of the king's name on the coins (Figure 14) left over from the Sassanid period certainly indicates the double and strategic importance of the city in the Sassanid period, which proves the Sassanid rule in these areas. The distribution of Sassanid sites in the Khorramabad valley is another proof of this claim (Figure 4). Our knowledge indicates that the first time, Sassanid Shapur in order to develop individual power to urban development for change the social structure of Iran, cities has undergone changes and developed and in this process the name "Shapur" on most cities as Shapurkhast "was established. Archaeological evidence from the excavation does not prove that urban development is a process, meaning that urban development has been accompanied by ups and downs. Among the reasons could be the decline of the Sassanid rule and repeated invasions of Iran. In the Islamic period from the fourth and fifth centuries onwards, when the Seljuks ruled in the Middle East in Iran, Iraq, and Asia Minor; the golden age of prosperity and development of the city began and the Seljuk’s (10th to 12th AD) of Iraq made Khorramabad one of the most important strategic points and connections with the Seljuks of Iran. The granting of coins to Al-Hasnawiyah and the existence of local coins were minted in the name of local governors clearly and significantly increase the importance of the city. In the Islamic period, this city has completely passed the urban life and has had a mosque, a mint and a government fortress. Due to its importance, the city has been repeated many times in geographical and historical books.
Based on the holistic mentality in this study, important information is provided; from written historical resources including geographical and historical books and data from archaeological excavation find such as coins, pottery and the distribution of sites regarding the formation, development and fall of the city of Shapurkhast (Figure 10 and 12). The foundation of the mentioned city was laid in the Parthian period. The city was developed during the Sassanid period due to the importance of the Sassanid kings in the development of cities and their location on trade routes, and was named after Shapur, the second and most powerful Sassanid king. In the Islamic period, after a short break, we see the comprehensive development of the city and the benefit of all urban structures, especially in the Seljuk period. The city was still prosperous until the end of the 14th century AD, when due to the growth of the town of KhorramAbad, its inhabitants merged with the current KhorramAbad and continued urban life. This city has been developed with suitable environmental conditions and being located on ancient roads and has been one of the important cities of the region in the Islamic era. During the patriarchal period, ecological and environmental conditions were among the most important factors in the abandonment of the city.

Abstract Castle monuments are one of the settlement types whose location, formation and space distribution are strongly influenced by natural factors and communicational factors. The present study, using field and documentary data and using the Geographic Information System (GIS) and Hierarchical Analysis Process (AHP), seeks to investigate the correlation between natural factors and castle settlements in Ardabil province and ranking of natural factors influencing the spatial distribution of these settlements. Based on the data obtained from field and documentary studies, 100 castles from different prehistoric, historical and Islamic periods in the geographical area of Ardabil province, which constitute the materials and statistical population of this study, were identified and studied. To analyze the data, after compiling the database, the distribution of identified castle settlements in relation to the variables of distance from the river, land shape, elevation, slope, aspect, climate, Land use/ vegetation and soil type were studied and measured. The results of the research indicate that natural factors have played a significant role in spatial distribution, determining the type of function and the importance of castle settlements in Ardabil province. The correlation analysis between natural factors and spatial distribution of the province’s castle settlements shows that the land shape (plain and mountainous), the distance from the river and the elevation have had the greatest impact on the amount and pattern of castle distribution. Other variables, namely slope, aspect, climate, Land use/ vegetation and soil type, have also been important and effective in the spatial distribution of these castles, respectively.

Abstract Human, is basically moral inventory, that it has found its ethical aspects in the process of time. Today, with pluralism and social activities, the natural desire of man to another in matters of employment and professional activity, which is manifested as "professional ethics" is mentioned. Professional ethics in all knowledge is an undeniable necessity that its rules have been developed for each academic knowledge, so the lack of it, is the scientific damage. In Archaeological circles of the world, close to three decades, Archaeological researchers based their works on ethics governing on the profession of Archeology in advance. However, Archaeological knowledge of Iran that it has the seventy years of life, professional ethics and practice in education has not been experienced! The purpose of this article in addition to the determination of the ethics position in the world of Archeology is showing the lack of professional ethics in the teaching and practice in Archaeology of Iran. This research reviewed issues such as the importance of ethics, the history of ethics and morality in Archeology, theory and practice of ethics in Archaeology of Iran and concluded that there is no constructive engagement and mutual cooperation between colleagues Archaeologist, Archaeologists and people.