Journal of Archaeological Studies

AbstractDuring the Sassanid period, due to the prosperity of Zoroastrian religion, religious buildings were built in the form of four-story fire temples. These fire temples included ... Read More AbstractDuring the Sassanid period, due to the prosperity of Zoroastrian religion, religious buildings were built in the form of four-story fire temples. These fire temples included four-room domed spaces and sometimes had a surrounding portico, which had a fireplace base built into the middle part of the building. The fires of these fire temples were based on their rank and importance including Bahram fire, Adran fire, court fire and then household and personal fires. Despite extensive studies in other parts of Iran, few studies have been conducted regarding the manifestations of Zoroastrian religion, including the structure of fire temples and fire pits on the shores of the Persian Gulf and the determination of the type and importance of the fires burning in them. On the northern shores of the Persian Gulf, which is considered the southern part of Fars study area, only two fire temples of Mohammad Abad, Brazjan and Kanari fire temple have been identified and introduced, Also, a number of fire pit foundations have been introduced in Tell Shahid, Barazjan Castle, Amamzadeh Shah Nooruddin, Keshto and more in Bardestan. Despite the identification of these works, there is not much information about the position and rank of the burning fire in these religious centers. In this article, while briefly referring to fire temples and the base of exposed fire pits on the northern shores of the Persian Gulf (Bushehr province), the Sassanid period seal from Bardestan that shows the burning fire in state fire temples at the level of Azar fire temple. Farnbagh is studied in this area. The abundance of fire pit foundations, the remains of several fire temples and the identification of this seal with inscriptions all around and the Sassanid government mark in the middle part of the seal indicate the centrality of Bardestan in the Zoroastrianism of the northern coasts of the Persian Gulf during the Sassanid period. The present research was formed by using the information obtained from archaeological investigations and accidental discoveries in the northern coasts of the Persian Gulf and was completed with the benefit of library studies.Keywords: Fireplace, The Base of the Fireplace, Pahlavi Inscription, Sassanid Period, Persian Gulf. 1. IntroductionThe rank and importance of Sassanid fires were not the same and there were three groups of fires related to rituals, including Bahram fire, Adaran fire (local fire) and Court fire (family fire) (Moule, 1994: 71). The most sacred of them was the fire of Bahram (state fire), which is called the fire of the victorious king. In these fire temples, such as Azar Ghashensab, Azar Farnbagh and Azar Mehr Barzin, it should burn continuously through any condition. The Adran fire was not burning all the time, and its consecration and purification ceremony was simpler than Bahram’s fire. Court fires are the third rank of Sasanian temples, which was easily prepared and purified from only one fire. The dimensions and glory of the fire temple and the shape and size of the fire pit determine the position of a fire temple. The big and important fire temples had larg and magnificent fire pits and the humble fire pits were related to local fire temples or personal fire temples and low people of Sassanid society (Tofighian, 2017: 196). The manifestations of Zoroastrianism in the study area of the Persian Gulf include several fire pit bases made of limestone, which have been identified because of construction projects (Tofighian, 2017: 195-210). The possible remains of several fire temples have also been identified in archaeological investigations, including Mohammad Abad Borazjan (Yaghmaei, 2009) and Kanari fire temple (Tofighian, 2024). Despite the distribution of fire temples and the foundations of fire pits on the northern shores of the Persian Gulf, the determination of the type and location of the burning fire in these fire temples is not clear. By identifying a short inscription on a Sassanid seal made of agate, we provide valuable information about the rank and rank of some fire temples in the Persian Gulf, such as Bahram fire, which was burning in a fire temple at the rank of Azar Farnbagh fire temple. Of course, what is certain is that not all fire temples in this area have the rank of Bahram fire and they could often belong to local and family fires. 2. Materials and MethodsThe research method in this article is an archaeological survey of the Persian Gulf coast and historical research, and the method of collecting information is a library study and an archaeological survey of the city of Bandar Dayer. As a result of archaeological surveys on the coast of the Gulf of Fez in Bushehr province, many fire pit foundations have been identified. A smaller number of fire temples have also been identified, but thus far not much information has been provided about the type and importance of the burning fire in the fire temples on the coast of the Persian Gulf. In this study, by introducing a seal and its inscription, the worship of the fire of Bahram as the most important ever-burning fire of the Sassanid period in a fire temple at the level of the Azar Farnbagh fire temple is discussed. 3. DataNot much information is available about the fire temples on the coast of the Persian Gulf. In archaeological surveys of the historical ports of the Persian Gulf, the remains of a fire temple were identified and introduced in the vicinity of the village of Kenari in the city of Bandar Dayer. It should be noted that the identification of numerous fire temple bases made of stone or plaster in the shape of two inverted cones and with vertical spoon patterns on them indicates the abundance of Sasanian fire temples on the coast of the Persian Gulf in Bushehr province. The distribution of Sasanian fire temples and hearth bases on the northern coast of the Persian Gulf indicates the spread of Zoroastrianism in these regions. Certainly, in many of these fire temples, local and family fires were burning, but it is conceivable that some of these fire temples had a national status and a higher rank. archaeological studies of the newly discovered port of Bardestan (Bordo), a seal fragment made of red agate has been identified, which bears a short inscription in the Pahlavi-Sassanian language. The study of this inscription provides valuable information about the worship of Zoroastrianism and the determination of the position and rank of the blazing fire in some of the fire temples on the northern coast of the Persian Gulf, which the authors will discuss in more detail in another article.This seal, with the Sassanid government symbol in the middle of the seal and the Sassanid Pahlavi inscription around the seal, indicates that it belongs to a Zoroastrian deity who is the guardian of the blazing fire of Bahram in a fire temple on the same level as the Azar Farnbagh fire temple. Considering the reference of the inscription from Bardestan to the Farnbagh fire, it can be assumed that in the Bardestan region, which has a large scattering of hearth bases and the remains of several fire temples, there was probably a large and first-class fire temple, and the guardian of the fire of this fire temple had a government seal. 4. DiscussionDuring the Sassanid period, the two institutions of government and religion were intertwined, and Zoroastrianism was considered a state religion. The symbol of this connection was manifested in the four-arched structure of fire temples and the blazing fire in the fire pits. Fire temples were a symbol of national unity, and throughout the Sassanid Empire, they had a single model in the construction of buildings and rituals of worshiping Ahura Mazda. The northern coast of the Persian Gulf, as the southern part of the Fars province, was the seat of the Sassanid Empire and was of great importance. In this area, numerous fire temples and stone hearths with vertical spoon patterns had a special place. The role and status of fire temples in the religion and economy of the Sassanid kingdom was so high that the back of the coins of this period was dedicated to the image of the hearth as an economic and financial symbol. The large number of fire temples and stone hearth bases on the northern coast of the Persian Gulf, especially in the Bardastan region, indicates the special position of this region in terms of rule and the prosperity of Zoroastrianism. The fires of the Sassanid temples, in order of importance, included the Bahram Fire, the Adaran Fire, the Court Fire, and then the domestic and personal fires. The fire of Bahram, as the most important ever-burning fire, was worshipped in large fire temples such as Azar Goshnesb, Azar Faranbagh, and Azar Mehr Barzin. The study of the fire pits on the coasts of the Persian Gulf, which are mainly in the form of two symmetrical cones and two trays at the top and bottom, made of stone and sometimes lime, and have a vertical spoon pattern, belonged to high-class and provincial fire temples. 5. ConclosionFew fire temple remains have been identified along the northern coast of the Persian Gulf, with the exception of the Mohammad Abad Fire Temple in Borazjan and the Kenari Fire Temple in Deir County. However, the nature and construction quality of the discovered hearths suggest the significant religious and administrative importance of these Zoroastrian temples during the Sasanian period. Fire pit foundations have been recorded at several sites, including Tell Shahid, Qal‘eh Borazjan, Keshto, and particularly in Bardestan. In addition to these architectural remains, the discovery of an agate seal inscribed with Sasanian Pahlavi script around its border and bearing governmental emblems in its center underscores the elevated status of Zoroastrianism in this region. The seal further suggests that some of the fire temples here may have held official, possibly provincial, rank within the Sasanian religious-political hierarchy. The inscription’s reference to the Farnbagh fire a fire of high rank within the Zoroastrian tradition strengthens the hypothesis that the Bardestan area, with its concentration of hearth foundations and fire temple remains, once housed fire temples of first-order status, potentially functioning at a governmental or provincial level. While the specific fire temple associated with the seal has yet to be identified, it is plausible that it was a state-level temple where the exalted Bahram fire was maintained. Locating this temple with precision will require further archaeological investigation and systematic excavation in the area where the seal was discovered.

Maritime Trade Between Iran and China in the First to Tenth Centuries AH based on the Excavated Pottery from the Persian Gulf Region

Tayebe Rahimi; Hassan Karimiyan; Kazem Omidi

Volume 17, Issue 1 , June 2025, , Pages 327-354

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2023.364689.143229

Abstract

AbstractEvidence has shown that the history of communication between the people of Iran and China, to the formation of powerful empires of two lands, goes back long before the rise ... Read More AbstractEvidence has shown that the history of communication between the people of Iran and China, to the formation of powerful empires of two lands, goes back long before the rise of Islam. Attested by textual sources and archeological documents, the experience of successful communication between the two countries continued even after the fall of the Sassanid dynasty. Historical reports of the 7th to the 16th century AD provide important information about the ups and downs of relations between the two countries. The recovery of their communication processes has shown that a mutual or double-sided history has resulted in a two-sided outcome. According to these reports, the process of communication contains four stages (Fig. 3). However, this has been put aside by several archeological researchers, who directly find evidence of early communication from the discovered documents, which is far from their actual understanding. and archaeology having Cultural findings examined with a question-oriented behavior, we are looking for this concept, so that by relying on pottery findings, can the question of “To what extent do the chronology of pottery findings emphasize the process of dealings and its turbulence?” can be answered? To answer this question, the results and conclusions of investigation and studies of pottery findings in the ancient sites of this region have been used. The findings of the research showed that although the historical reports explicitly in some cases emphasize the complete cancellation of relations or its indirectness, but the chronology of the study of pottery finds in the Persian Gulf region shows a continuous trend in their import. And the result emphasizes the integrity of the information, especially the accuracy in the chronology of pottery findings and their quantitative study.Keywords: Archeology, Persian Gulf, Maritime Trade, Siraf, Celadon Pottery. 1. IntroductionAlthough Chinese sources have mentioned a political relationship between from 649 to 745 CE (Park, 2012:6-7), the opportunity of restoration of land trade between the Umayyads and the Tang government did not arise. At the same time, because of the Battle of Talas, the history of the two societies entered a new phase and the sea route inevitably replaced the land route. In Fig. 6, the beginning and end of these periods can be seen according to the dynasties that came to power in Iran and China, as well as the period of prosperity of each of the commercial centers in the Persian Gulf region and imported ceramics into these centers. According to Table 3, which shows the classification and chronology of the potteries, six types of porcelains have been identified as imported pottery at the same time (649 to 745 CE), considering that the number of these porcelains is limited and their distribution is not widespread in the entire region, determining their real date is unclear and cannot be mentioned as the official beginning of the pottery trade. 2. DiscussionAccording to the evidence of the eighth century CE, sea travel in the Indian Ocean became the dominant method of direct and indirect communication between China and the Islamic World (Fig. 1). This alternation occurred simultaneously with the transfer of the capital to Baghdad, which was connected to Basra and the Persian Gulf through the Euphrates River. At this time (745 to 867 CE), the Abbasid government improved its relationship with the Tang government. But with Huang Chao’s rebellion, there was a long-term gap in direct long-distance maritime trade from 878 to 961 CE (Vosoughi,2017) causing trade to shift to Malay ports (Schottenhammer & 蕭婦, 2016: 137). In the Persian Gulf Region, Basra became less important due to a lack of proper management in development, population increase, and numerous unrests. The coins found at Siraf are a reminder of the increase in trade in the ninth century CE. At the same time, the Tang government started trading porcelains as goods (Guy,1990:9). The Belitung shipwreck is a clear example of the volume of Changsha pottery shipments at this period of time (Schottenhammer & 蕭婦, 2016: 151). Although the rebellion in China brought about instability and a decrease in direct relations, considerable volumes of imported ceramics have also been discovered at Siraf from this time period. The classification and chronology of the potteries of this site and the samples collected from the south of Iran show sixteen types of potteries (Table 3).The third period (961 to about 1253 CE) happened after a recession. From the beginning of the fourth century and following the division of the Islamic World, the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt and Iranian governments in Iran began to rule. The people of Siraf were still playing a role in trade during this period. After a successful experience, this port went into decline and Kish quickly assumed the role of Siraf. Sohar and the port of Aden were under the control and rule of the Fatimids to obtain profits from trade (Vosoughi, 2017). At the same time, due to the Sriwijaya’s rule in the Strait of Malacca, direct communication with Chinese ports was disconnected. This process improved with the establishment of the Song Dynasty, and the kings of this dynasty made many facilities to encourage maritime trade (Medley, 1975:32). At this time, the Chinese government increased production for export and determined the flow of trade (Harrisson, 2003:99), encouraging the pottery trade to create balance in the trading business specially after 1111 CE (Guy, 1990:9). The classification and chronology of pottery types in the site of the Persian Gulf region (Table 3) shows sixteen types of imported pottery, which is a reminder of the encouragement of pottery trade during this era.The process of dealings underwent major changes in the beginning of the thirteenth century AD with the formation of Mongol power and the occupation of China and Iran by Genghis and his successors. At this time, local governments played a special role in the process. Unlike Kish, Hormuz became a regional power and unlike Siraf, it became an independent base. In China, the Ming government replaced the Yuan Dynasty. Nevertheless, it still brought about the expansion of trade. These trans-regional connections changed with the arrival of the raiding Portuguese in the sixteenth century CE. Archeological studies show strong evidence of the volume of pottery imports in this period. The collection collected from Hormuz provides important information about the pottery trade in the second half of the seventh century later, between China and this region presented (Williamson, 1973: 56, m3, Morgan,1991:67). This date coincides with Zheng He’s trips to Hormuz (Meicun & Zhang, 2015:417), where coins were given as gifts by him. The samples obtained from Bahrain and Al-Qatif are reminders of this subject (Cribb and Potts, 1996:109). However, after his travels, there was a break until the presence of the Portuguese (Zhang, 2018:74). During this period, Chinese participation in the maritime trade of the Indian Ocean declined or did not exist at all (Lo, 1958:337-340). This decline may be due to the sea ban policy of the early Ming Dynasty, which was accompanied by great stagnation after 1407 AD. By the end of this century, China’s manufacturing industries were in severe decline, this is when the porcelain trade changed from celadon to blue and white potteries (Zhang, 2018:74). 3. ConclusionEvidence suggests that historical accounts at times emphasize either a complete reversal or an indirect nature of commercial transactions. These shifts have had a direct impact on ceramic production in China, on patterns of export, the volume and variety of monetary exchanges, and even on the distribution of goods across the Persian Gulf region because of changing trade centers. Archaeological investigations have demonstrated that, although the demand for ceramics in this reciprocal exchange was largely unidirectional, ceramics remain the most reliable material evidence for reconstructing the processes of maritime trade. The data derived from ceramic finds can serve to confirm, challenge, or refine certain historical narratives, depending on their textual character. The chronological sequence of ceramic types rarely shows a clear break in importation, suggesting the need for further integrated and systematic research across the region particularly in light of the information presented in Figure 6.

Torpedo Jars of Iran: Context of Archaeological Discovery and Origin of the Bitumen Coating

Jacques Connan; Mohammad Esmaeil Esmaeili Jelodar; Michael. H. Engel; Alex Zumberge; Mehdi Azarian; Jebrael Nokandeh

Volume 16, Issue 2 , September 2024, , Pages 269-307

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2025.380179.143282

Abstract

One of the most important potteries used in Persian Gulf (Middle East) maritime trade with a large part of the ancient world, including the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, the Indian ... Read More One of the most important potteries used in Persian Gulf (Middle East) maritime trade with a large part of the ancient world, including the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, the Indian Ocean, Sri Lanka, and finally the country of Thailand. (Suriname ship cargo) earthenware jar called Torpedo-jar or storage jar. Although this type of pottery was dated by most researchers to Sassanian era, this type was used in trade and burial from the Parthian period to early Islamic era or 3rd century BC to 9th century AD (Kennet, 2004: 85). The most important feature of these types of jars is the coating of bitumen on its inner surface. So far, archaeologists have not succeeded in finding a kiln for the production of this type of pottery, so it is very important to know the place of pottery production and the bitumen mine used in them. In this article, using the method of geochemical laboratory studies and a comparative study, the bitumen samples taken from the torpedo jars from the south and southwest of Iran were investigated. In this research, 15 pieces of pottery with tar coating belonging to the archaeological excavations of Siraf and Mahruban ports on the coast of the Persian Gulf (south of Iran), related to the Sassanid and Islamic period, and samples from Shush and Shushtra region from the Parthian and Sassanid periods were selected.The sample of the Susa area is from the Iran National Museum and belongs to the archaeological excavations of Susa region, the sample of Ivan-i Karkheh is related to the Dezful region, and the sample of the Dastova area is also related to the Shushtar region in Khuzestan province, southwest of Iran. All bitumen samples were analyzed geochemically with the aim of determining the origin of bitumen in its specialized laboratories in Europe and America. The main result of the research shows the use of bitumen from the bitumen springs of Khuzestan, Lorestan, Ilam and Kermanshah provinces in the studied pottery (Fig.1).

Research on the Advantages of Archaeological Materials Found in the Underwater Archaeological Survey of Bushehr Port

Hossein Tofighian

Volume 12, Issue 1 , May 2020, , Pages 41-58

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2020.250382.142528

Abstract

According to the report of the Center for Marine Medical Studies affiliated to Bushehr University of Medical Sciences about the discovery of pottery fragments from the seafloor in the ... Read More According to the report of the Center for Marine Medical Studies affiliated to Bushehr University of Medical Sciences about the discovery of pottery fragments from the seafloor in the coastal waters of Bushehr Port, Department of Underwater Archeology, Iranian Center for Archaeological Research (ICAR) undertook to study and identify these cultural remains during August 2016. With the participation of professional divers, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences began scientific diving in the Persian Gulf. During the underwater archaeological survey, an area containing clay fragments in the seafloor was identified. The site is located 500 meters from the shores of Bushehr Port and at a depth of three to six meters. Underwater archeological studies of the coasts of Bushehr port in the Persian Gulf, cultural materials including Torpedo jars, small and large glazed crabs and fragments of pottery in the seafloor were identified. Among the cultural findings, a small number of Torpedo jars and more broken pieces of this pottery and several glazed potteries were collected. Torpedo jars and Turquoise glaze pottery are among the most prominent Sassanid pottery in the Persian Gulf that were shipped from Iranian ports to destination ports in the maritime trade. Determining the true nature of this historic site and its dating was one of the major impetus for underwater archaeological diving operations on these beaches, which led to the discovery of cargo from a historic ship from the Sassanid era. In this article, while explaining the underwater archaeology research program of Bushehr port, the discovered pottery of this study, including turquoise and glazed pottery as the most prominent Sassanid and early Islamic pottery in the Persian Gulf, will be discussed. The Sassanid position in the Persian Gulf maritime trade and the importance of trade in this historic period from Iranian ports to destination ports in the Indian subcontinent, the southern coasts of the Persian Gulf and East Africa are carefully considered.

The First Yue Celadon in Iran and its Distribution Pattern in the Early Islamic Period

Mahsa Faizi; Firoz Mahjour

Volume 6, Issue 2 , March 2015, , Pages 131-148

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2015.54179

Abstract

Celadon as one of the oldest potteries originated at China during the Shang Period (3500 B.C (in Zhejiang province. From the Han dynasty (206-221 A.D), true celadon ware started to ... Read More

Investigating the Ancient Siraf’s Coastal Architectural Structures by Underwater Archaeology

Hossein Tofighian

Volume 6, Issue 1 , September 2014, , Pages 38-21

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2014.52671

Abstract

Some researchers believe that because of the severe earthquake and tsunami in the fourth century H., a large part of Siraf submerged by the Persian Gulf water fluctuations. Based on ... Read More

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Keywords = Persian Gulf

A case study of Zoroastrian Religion of the Sassanid Period along the Shores of the Persian Gulf: A New Stamp from Bardestan, Bandar Deir, Bushehr Province

Abstract

Maritime Trade Between Iran and China in the First to Tenth Centuries AH based on the Excavated Pottery from the Persian Gulf Region

Abstract

Torpedo Jars of Iran: Context of Archaeological Discovery and Origin of the Bitumen Coating

Abstract

Research on the Advantages of Archaeological Materials Found in the Underwater Archaeological Survey of Bushehr Port

Abstract

The First Yue Celadon in Iran and its Distribution Pattern in the Early Islamic Period

Abstract

Investigating the Ancient Siraf’s Coastal Architectural Structures by Underwater Archaeology

Abstract