Document Type : Research Paper
Authors
1 Ph.D. Graduated Archaeology, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
2 Professor, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
3 Assistant Professor, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism, University of Mazandaran, Babolsar, Iran
Abstract
Srōš is a great Zoroastrian diviniy in the Avesta and Middle Persian texts. He functioned as a warrior and a fighter against evil, a high priest, and one of the judges of the soul in the afterlife. In the Avesta, four separate hymns are dedicated to Srōš, which implies his important position among the Zoroastrian divinities. The name of Srōš survived as a divine messenger in the Iranian literature of the Islamic period. However, Srōš’s name was missing in royal inscriptions, and his name did not appear among the pantheon of Iranian divinities in Greek, Roman and Syriac sources. Due to this absence, the status of Srōš in ancient Iran and his possible visual representation has not given due recognition or attention. In this paper, first the characteristics and functions of Srōš in Zoroastrian literature studies are described. Then, on the basis of Zoroastrian textual sources, and Srōš’s status and iconographic evidence in pre-Sasanian Iran and in eastern Iran, and his possible visual representation is investigated during Sasanian period. The results of this study indicate that Srōš was probably depicted both anthropomorphically (charioteer motif) and non-anthropomorphically (the rooster and ear motif), and these images were inspired by Zoroastrian beliefs
Keywords
Main Subjects
Ackerman, Ph. (1964), Sāsānian Seals, in: Survey of Persian Art from Prehistoric Times to the Present, A.U. Pope and Ph. Ackerman (eds.), Vol. 2, pp. 784-815, Tehran: Manafzadeh Group.
Avestâ (2013), Translated and Annotated by J. Doostkhah. Tehran: Morvarid.
Back, M. (1978), Die Sassanidischen Staatsinschriften: Studien zur Orthographie und Phonologie des Mittelpersischen der Inschriften, zusammen mit einem etymologischen Index des mittelpersischen Wortgutes und einem Textcorpus der behandelten Inschriften, Acta Iranica 18, 3e série: Textes et mémoires vol. 8, Téhéran: Bibliothèque Pahlavi.
Bivar, A.D.H. (1969), Catalogue of the Western Asiatic Seals in the British Museum. Stamp Seals II: The Sassanian Dynasty, London: British Museum Press.
Brunner, C.J. (1979), Sasanian Seals in the Moore Collection: Motive and Meaning in Some Popular Subjects, Metropolitan Museum Journal 14, pp. 33-50.
Bundahišn (GBd.), (2011) Translated and Commented by M. Bahar, Tehran: Toos.
Callieri, P. (1990), On the Diffusion of Mithra Images in Sasanian Iran; New Evidence from a Seal in the British Museum, East and West 40, pp. 79-98.
Curtius Rufus, Q. (1809), The History of the Life and Reign of Alexander the Great, Vol. 1, translated from the Latin with supplements, notes, and a map by Peter Prat, London: S. Bagster.
Dādestān ī Dēnīg (Dd.), (1998), Part 1: Transcription, Translation and Commentary by M. Jaffari-Dehaghi, Studia Iranica 20.
Dârâb Hormazyâr’s Rivâyat, (1922), E.M.R. Unvâlâ (ed.), Bombay: British India Press.
Dēnkard, Book III, Part 2 (Dk.), (2005), Translated by F. Fazilat, Tehran: Mehr Aein.
Ettinghausen, R. (1972), From Byzantium to Sasanian Iran and the Islamic World. Three Modes of Artistic Influence, Leiden: Brill.
Ferdowsi, A. (1987), The Shahnameh (The Book of Kings), Vol. 1, J. Khaleghi Motlagh (ed.), New York: Bibliotheca Persica.
Ferdowsi, A. (2007), The Shahnameh (The Book of Kings), Vol. 8, J. Khaleghi Motlagh (ed.), Tehran: The Center for the Great Islamic Encyclopedia.
Frye, R. N. (1971), Sasanian Seals in the Collection of Mohsen Foroughi, Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum, Part III. Pahlavi Inscriptions, Vol. 6: Seals and Coins, London: Lund Humphries.
Frye, R.N. (1975), Mithra in Iranian History, in: Mithraic Studies: Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies. J. R. Hinnells (ed.), Vol. 1, pp. 62-67, Manchester University Press.
Frye, R.N. (1978), Mithra in Iranian Archaeology, in: Études Mithriaques: Actes du 2e Congrès International Téhéran, du 1er au 8 Septembre 1975 (Acta Iranica 17), J. Duchesne-Guillemin (ed.), pp. 205-211, Téhéran: Bibliothèque Pahlavi.
Ghirshman, R. (1948), Études iraniennes II: un ossuaire en pierre sculptée: Recherches sur les coutumes funéraires sassanides. Artibus Asiae 11, No.4, pp. 292-310.
Ghirshman, R. (1963), Perse. Proto-iraniens, Mèdes. Achéménides, Paris: Gallimard.
Gignoux, Ph., and R. Gyselen (1982), Sceaux Sassanides de Diverses Collections Privées, Studia Iranica, Cahier 1, Leuven.
Gnoli, G. (2009), Some Notes upon the Religious Significance of the Rabatak Inscription, in: Exegisti monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams, W. Sundermann, A. Hintze and F. de Blois (eds.), pp. 141-161, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
Goldman, B. (1988), The Celestial Chariot East and West, Bulletin of the Asia Institute, New Series, Vol. 2, pp. 87-105.
Grenet, F. (2002), Zoroastrian Themes on Early Mediaeval Sogdian Ossuaries, in: A Zoroastrian Tapestry: Art, Religion & Culture, Ph. J. Godrej and F. P. Mistree (eds.), pp. 91-97, Ahmedabad: Mapin.
Grenet, F. (2003), La Geste d'Ardashir Fils de Pâbag. Kārnāmag ī Ardaxšēr ī Pābagān, Die.
Grenet, F., Riboud P., and Y. Junkai (2004), Zoroastrian Scenes on a Newly Discovered Sogdian Tomb in Xi’an, Northern China, Studia Iranica 33, pp. 273-284.
Grenet, F. (2006), Iranian Gods in Hindu Garb: The Zoroastrian Pantheon of the Bactrians and Sogdians, Second- Eight Centuries, Bulletin of the Asia Institute, New Series, Vol. 20, pp. 87- 99.
Grenet, F. (2007a), Where are the Sogdian Magi? with Samra Azarnouche (Appendix 2), Bulletin of the Asia Institute, New Series, Vol. 21, pp. 159-177.
Grenet, F. (2007b), Religious Diversity among Sogdian Merchants in Sixth-Century China: Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Manichaeism, and Hinduism, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 27.2, pp. 463-478.
Grenet, F. (2013), Some hitherto Unrecognized Mythological Figures on Sasanian Seals: Proposed Identifications, in: Commentationes Iranicae. Vladimiro f. Aaron Livschits nonagenario donum natalicium, S. Tokhtasev and P. Lurje (eds.), pp. 202- 210, Saint-Pétersbourg: Nestor-Historia.
Grenet, F. (2014), I. La Symbolique dans la Glyptique Sassanide: Les Images et Leur Rapport Éventuel aux Inscriptions; II. Analyse iconographique de quelques plats d’argent sassanides et péri-sassanides; III. En marge de la fouille du palais de Kazakli-yatkan: le Nowruz royal au Khorezm, École pratique des hautes études, Section des sciences religieuses, Annuaire 121 (2012- 2013), pp. 113-118.
Grenet, F. (2015), Zoroastrianism among the Kushans, in: Kushan histories. Literary Sources and Selected Papers from a Symposium at Berlin, December 5 to 7, 2013, H. Falk (ed.), pp. 203-239, Bremen: Hempen.
Grenet, F., and M. Minardi (2021), The Image of the Zoroastrian God Srōsh: New Elements, Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 27, pp. 154-173.
Gubaev, A.G., Loginov, S.D., and A.B. Nikitin (1996), Sasanian Bullae from the Excavations of Ak-Depe by the Station of Artyk, Iran 34, pp. 55-59.
Gunter, A.C. and P. Jett (1992), Ancient Iranian Metalwork in the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery and the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington D.C: Arthur M. Sackler Gallery and Freer Gallery of Art.
Gyselen, R. (1993), Catalogue des Sceaux, camées et Bulles Sassanides de la Bibliothèque Nationale et du Musée du Louvre, I. Collection Générale, Paris: Bibliothèque Nationale.
Gyselen, R. (2007), Sasanian Seals and Sealings in the A. Saeedi Collection, Acta Iranica 44.
Hallock, R.T. (1969), Persepolis Fortification Tablets, University of Chicago Press.
Handarzīha ī Pēšīnagān (1992), in: Pahlavi texts (Transcription, Translation), Jamasp Ji Dastur Minocher ji Jamasp-Asana (ed.), Translated by S. Orian, Tehran: National Library of Iran.
Herodotus (1922), History of Herodotus, Book VII, Partly in the Original and partly in Translation, C. E. Robinson and Others (eds.), Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Herzfeld, E. (1920), Der Thron des Khosrô: Quellenkritische und ikonographische Studien über Grenzgebiete der Kunstgeschichte des Morgen- und Abendlandes, Jahrbuch der Preußischen Kunstsammlungen 41, pp. 103-147.
Heydari, H. and M. Qassempour (2014), Comparison between the Qualities of Functions of Soroush in Shahnameh and Zoroastrian Texts. Kohanflu-Name-ye Adab-e Farsi 5(2), pp. 125-144.
Hinz, W. (1973), Neue Wege im Altpersischen, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
Horne, C. F. (1917), The Sacred Books and Early Literature of the East, with Historical Surveys of the Chief Writings of Each Nation, Vol. 7: Ancient Persia, New York & London: Parke, Austin & Lipscomb.
Humbach, H. and Skjærvø P.O. (1983), The Sasanian Inscription of Paikuli, Part 3.1: Restored text and translation, Wiesbaden.
Huyse, Ph. (1990), Iranische Namen in den griechischen Dokumenten Ägyptens, M. Mayrhofer and R. Schmitt (eds.), Iranisches Personennamenbuch, Band V: Iranische Personennamen in Nebenüberlieferungen indogermanischer Sprachen, Fasc. 6a, Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Kellens, J. (1973), Les Frauuaṧis dans l’Art Sassanides, Iranica Antiqua 10, pp. 133-138.
Kellens, J. (1975), Mythes et Conceptions Avestiques sous les Sassanides, Monumentum H. S. Nyberg I, Monumentum H.S. Nyberg, Acta Iranica 4, vol. 1, pp. 457-470.
Kreyenbroek, G. (1985), Sraoša in the Zoroastrian Tradition, Leiden: Brill.
Koulabadi, R. (2017), Study Monuments Attributed to Zoroastrian and non-Zoroastrian Gods and Goddesses in Sasanian Period, PhD. Thesis, Seyyed Mehdi Mousavi Koohpar, Tarbiat Modares University, Humanities Faculty.
Le Livre d’ Ardā Vīrāz (AWN.), (1984), Transliteration, transcription and translation of the pahlavi text by Ph. Gignoux, Translated into Persian by Zh. Amouzegar (2015), Tehran: Institut Français de Recherche en Iran and Moin Publications.
Mādayān ī Yōšt ī Friyān (MJF.), (2017), in: Zwölf altertümliche Texte aus dem zoroastrischen Persien, herausgegeben, ins Neupersische übersetzt, erläutert und ausführlich kommentiert von Bijan Gheiby, Tehran: Mahmoud Afshar Foundation with cooperation of Sokhan Publication.
Mann, R. (2001), Parthian and Hellenistic Influences on the Development of Skanda's Cult in North India: Evidence from Kuṣāṇa-Era Art and Coins, Bulletin of the Asia Institute, New Series, Vol. 15, pp. 111-128.
Minardi, M. (2021), Notes on the Elaboration and Transmission of Iconographic Elements in Central Asia and India before the Kushans: Zoroastrian “Bird-Priests,” kinnaras and Sirens, East and West, Vol. N.S. 2 (61) – NO.1, pp. 81-114.
Mīnū yē xrad (MX.), (2012), Translated and Commented by A. Tafazzoli, J. Amozggar (ed.), Tehran: Toos.
Nöldeke, Th. (1878), Geschichte des Artachšȋr i Pâpakân, aus dem Pehlewi übersetzt, mit Erläuterungen und einer Einleitung versehen, in: Festschrift zur feier seines fünfzigjährigen Doctorjubiläums am 24. October 1878, Herrn Professor Theodor Benfey, Beiträge zur Kunde der Indogermanischen Sprachen IV, pp. 22- 69, Göttingen: Verlag von Robert Peppmüller.
Nyberg, H.S. (1938), Die Religionen des alten Iran. Deutsch von H. H. Schaeder, Leipzig: Hinrichs.
Pahlavi Texts, Part IV: Contents of the Nasks (Dînkard, Book VIII, IX), (1892), E.W. West (ed.), Sacred Books of the East 37, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Pugachenkova, G. A. (1994), The Form and Style of Sogdian Ossuaries, Bulletin of the Asia Institute, New Series, Vol. 8, The Archaeology and Art of Central Asia Studies from the Former Soviet Union, pp. 227-243.
Riboud, P. (2012), Bird Priests in Central Asian Tombs of 6th-Century China and Their Significance in the Funerary Realm, Bulletin of the Asia Institute 21, pp. 1-23.
Rosenfield, J. M. (1967), The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans, Berkeley: University of California Press.
Russell, J. R. (1987), Zoroastrianism in Armenia, Harvard University: Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations & National Association for Armenian Studies and Research.
Russell, J. R. (1990), Kartīr and Mānī: A Shamanistic Model of their Conflict, Acta Iranica 30, Papers in Honor of Ehsan Yarshater, pp. 180-193.
Saddar Nasr and saddar Bundehesh (1909), A.B. Naservanji Dhabhar (ed.), Bombay: The Trustees of the Parsee Punchayet Funds and Properties.
Schmidt, R. (1998), Parthische Sprach- und Namenüberlieferung aus arsakidischer Zeit. In: Wiesehöfer J. (ed.), Das Partherreich und seine Zeugnisse: Beiträge des internationalen Colloquiums, Eutin (27. - 30. Juni 1996= The Arsacid Empire: Sources and Documentation, Translated into Persian by H. Sadeghi (2013), pp. 223-294, Tehran: Farzan-e Rouz.
Shaked, Sh. (1994), Dualism in Transformation. Varieties of Religion in Sasanian Iran, London: School of Oriental and African.
Shaki, M. (1994), Dēn, Posted 21 November 2011 (http: // www. iranicaonline. Org / articles / den).
Shāyist Nāshāyist: A Pahlawī Text (ŠnŠ.), (1990), Transcripted and Translated by K. Mazdapur, Tehran: Moasese Motaleat va Tahghighate Farhangi.
Shenkar, M. (2008), Aniconism in the Religious Art of Pre-Islamic Iran and Central Asia, Bulletin of the Asia Institute, New Series, Vol. 22, Zoroastrianism and Mary Boyce with Other Studies, pp. 239-256.
Shenkar, M. (2013), A Sasanian Chariot Drawn by Birds and the Iconography of Sraoša, in: S. Tokhtasev and P. Lurje (eds.), Commentationes Iranicae. Vladimiro f. Aaron Livschits nonagenario donum natalicium, pp. 211- 222, Saint-Pétersbourg: Nestor-Historia.
Shenkar, M. (2014), Intangible Spirits and Graven Images: The Iconography of Deities in the Pre-Islamic Iranian World, Magical and Religious Literature of Late Antiquity series, Vol. 4, Brill Academic Publishers.
Sims-Williams, N. (2004), The Bactrian Inscription of Rabatak: A New Reading, Bulletin of the Asia Institute, New Series, Vol. 18, pp. 53-68.
Skjærvø, P.O. (1983), “Kirdir’s Vision”: Translation and Analysis, Archaeologische Mitteilungen aus Iran 16, pp. 269-306.
Skjærvø P.O. (2011), Kartir, Posted 24 April 2012, (http: // www. iranicaonline. Org / articles / kartir).
Srōš Yasn: Avestan and Zand of the Yasn 57 (2003), Transcription, Persian Translation, Commentary and Glossary by M.T. Rashed Mohassel, Tehran: Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies.
The Dâdistân-î Dînîk (Dd.) and the Epistles of Mânûskîhar (1882), Translated by E.W. West, Pahlavi Texts, Part II, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 18, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
The Pahlavi Rivāyat Accompanying the Dādestān ī Dēnīg (PRDd.) (1990), Williams, A.V. (ed.), Part II, Translation, Commentary and Pahlavi Text, Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
The Zand ī Wahman Yasn, A Zoroastrian Apocalypse (ZWY.), (1995), C.G. Cereti (ed.), Roma: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente.
Winter, I. J. (1989), The “Hasanlu Gold Bowl”: Thirty Years Later, Expedition 31, No. 2-3, pp. 87-106.
Xenophon (1914), Cyropaedia, Vol. 2, translated by Walter Miller, London: William Heinemann.
Zand-î Vohûman Yasn (ZWY.) and Two Pahlavi Fragments (1957), B.T. Anklesaria (ed.), Bombay.
)