Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

• Khadijeh Gholami ¹
• Yaghoub Mohammadifar ²

¹ Ph. D Candidate, Department of Archeology, Faculty of Art and Architecture, University of Bu-Ali Sina, Hamadan, Iran.

² Professor, Department of Archeology, Faculty of Art and Architecture, University of Bu-Ali Sina, Hamadan, Iran. (Corresponding Author).

Abstract

Abstract
In the early third century CE, Iran witnessed profound political and military transformations that led to the rise of one of the most significant dynasties in its history: the Sasanians. According to historical sources, Ardashir engaged in several battles to gain control over Fars, particularly its southern regions. In Sasanian archaeological studies, the powerful families of southern Fars during the transition from the Parthian to the Sasanian period have been largely overlooked. The present research aims to identify the powerful families in southern Fars based on historical evidence, addressing the following question: What archaeological data indicate the existence of local powers in southern Fars during the Parthian period? Furthermore, it examines the relationship of these families with the Parthian government and Ardashir’s methods for confronting them. This study employs a descriptive-analytical methodology, utilizing both library and field resources. Historical sources mention families such as the Nōšāzād and Sabak in Abrasās, the Milādiyān in Laristan, and powers like Haftvād in Kojārān and Sanatruq in Bahrain. Based on historical sources, military strategies, diplomacy, and alliances with Parthian families were among the key approaches used by the Sasanians to consolidate power and legitimize their rule in Iran, particularly in southern Fars. Additionally, archaeological findings confirm the presence of powerful families in southern Fars. The site of Tomb-e Bot, interpreted as a semi-royal seat during the Parthian era, is indicative of existing power structures in the region. The factors contributing to the power of these families included kinship ties with the Parthians, geopolitical position, control over trade routes, and a network of fortresses.
Keywords: Parthian Families, Sasanians, Ardashir Babakan, Southern Fars, Castle, Hormuz, Parthian Pottery.
 
1. Introduction
In the early third century CE, Iran witnessed profound political and military upheavals that led to the rise of one of the greatest dynasties in its history—the Sasanians. However, this process was neither simple nor unchallenged. Historical sources mention several battles fought by Ardashir I in southern Fars, some of which ended in his defeat. The resistance of southern Fars’ noble families against Ardashir’s advances not only highlights the presence of local power centers but also underscores their role as serious rivals to northern Fars. Although Ardashir ultimately succeeded in crushing these resistances after numerous arduous and protracted battles, thereby incorporating southern Fars—a key strategic region for controlling the Persian Gulf—into his domain, this process also reflects the political and social complexities of the era.
This study seeks to identify the powerful noble families of southern Fars based on historical evidence, addressing the following question: Which archaeological data attest to the existence of local powers in southern Fars during the Parthian period? Additionally, it examines these families’ relationship with the Parthian Empire and Ardashir’s strategies for confronting them.
Despite the significance of the transition from the Parthians to the Sasanians, independent historical and archaeological studies on southern Fars—particularly concerning its local powers—remain scarce. Existing research has largely been limited to archaeological surveys or treated the subject only peripherally within broader studies of Sasanian history. This scholarly gap underscores the need for a more detailed examination of the role played by southern Fars’ noble families in the region’s political dynamics and their interactions with the emerging Sasanian central authority. Understanding these dynamics not only enhances our comprehension of the Sasanian state formation process but may also elucidate patterns of local resistance against political centralization.
 
2. The Geopolitical Position and Role as an Intermediary Hub
The southern Fars region, which during the Sasanian period was part of Ardashir-Khwarrah (Ibn Balkhī, 2005: 132–141), encompassed a vast area along the coasts and hinterlands of the Persian Gulf. Southern Fars has always held strategic importance due to its unique connective position, serving as a bridge between the shores of the Persian Gulf and inland power centers (Fig. 1).
Additionally, the southern Zagros Mountains functioned as a natural barrier, playing a vital role in the region’s security and human geography. With their complex topography and varying elevations, these mountains formed enclosed plains surrounded by highlands, acting both as a natural defensive fortification and providing a suitable environment for the emergence of semi-autonomous and stable communities (Fig. 2).
The climatic conditions of southern Fars were another critical factor in resisting external enemies. Ibn Balkhī describes the climate of Irāhestān in southern Fars as follows: “No army can station there except during the three months of spring; in winter, they cannot remain due to rainfall and lack of pasture, and in summer, due to the extreme heat” (2005: 141). This description highlights how the region’s harsh weather posed significant challenges for foreign forces.
 
3. The Powerful Families in Southern Fars
Southern Fars under the Parthians was governed by semi-independent dynasties, though their territorial control remains unclear. Historical sources like the Kār-nāmag ī Ardašīr, Shahnameh, and al-Tabari’s History mention several local rulers in early 3rd-century CE Southern Fars (Table 1):
1. The Nōshzād in Abrasās (Jahrom) (al-Tabari 1983:582; Ferdowsi 1968, VII:146).
2. The Sabāk in Abrasās  (Ferdowsi 1968, VII:132; Mashkoor 1950:16) in Jahrom.
3. Haftvād  in Kojarān (likely in southern Iran, near Lār) (Tabari 1983:582; Ferdowsi 1968, VII:139–154; Mashkoor 1960:21–32 (Kār-nāmag; Mashkoor 1960:24)
4. Abtenbud in southern Fars (al-Tabari 1983:582; Mashkoor 1960:23–25)
5. Sanatruq in Bahrain (al-Tabari 1983:584). 
6. The Miladian House of Larestan, though absent in Ardashir’s campaigns, is noted by Nöldeke (1978: 24) as being of Parthian origin. Gorgin Milad - mentioned in the Shahnameh (Ferdowsi 1971, IX: 30-32) and later Safavid records - maintained their ruling power until 1601 CE (Fig. 3).
 
4. Archaeological Evidence of Local Powers in Southern Fars
Archaeological and historical research on the northern coasts and hinterlands of the Persian Gulf has been limited. However, the few studies conducted have identified and uncovered significant sites from the Parthian period. Among the most important sites is Tomb-e Bot in Mohr County, interpreted as a quasi-royal seat. During its second cultural phase (80–260 CE), Tappeh Bot provides some of the most significant cultural materials related to local powers in southern Fars. The artifacts discovered at the site reflect a declined courtly style of the Achaemenids by the 2nd century CE. (Askari Chaverdi, 2013: 157–193; Askari Chaverdi, 2017: 127–150).
 
5. Fortresses and Strongholds
Archaeological activities in southern Iran, particularly in southern Fars, have primarily been limited to surveys and the identification of ancient sites. Surveys in Lamerd and Mohr counties (whose results have been published) indicate that out of 76 identified sites, only 12 show evidence of Parthian occupation (Askari Chaverdi, 2013: 81–83). However, none of these sites fall within the scope of the present study.
Between 2014 and 2018, ceramics from three sites in the Sasanian Hormuz region (southern Fars) were examined: Qal’eh Golrokh (Gholami et al., 2022), Qal’eh Kopir (Ashrafi, 2017), and Tomb-e-goveh (Pasban, 2018). Studies of these ceramics confirmed traces of Parthian-period presence. Accordingly, the Hormuz region of Fars, with its eight fortresses situated on highlands and foothills across an area approximately 45 km long and 20 km wide, was selected as the study area.
The Hormuz-Fars region, corresponding to the Beyram and Chahvarz districts (Gholami & Mohammadi-Far, 2024: 62-63) in southern Fars, has revealed eight identified fortresses (Image 6). The fortresses of Faryab, Kapir, and Salavar are situated on Mount Bol, while the fortresses of Nehl, Khajagan, Golrokh, Guri, and Lid are located on the mountains of Alamarvdasht.
Studies conducted on ceramic data have led to the identification of diagnostic Parthian pottery types, such as coarse black ware with raised bands, painted, glazed, burnished, and Burnished and Polished Pottery, indicating Parthian-period settlement in the Hormuz plain.
 
6. Conclusion
The political transformations of third-century CE southern Fars, coinciding with the Parthian decline and Sasanian rise, underscore the critical role of local families in the region’s power dynamics. This study, drawing on historical and archaeological evidence, demonstrates that these local dynasts leveraged political and cultural legitimacy derived from their Parthian affiliations, claims of ancient ancestry, strategic geopolitical positions, control over trade routes, and a network of fortified castles—which continued into the Sasanian period—to resist Ardashir Babakan’s centralizing policies. Archaeological data, particularly the site of Tomb-e Bot, indicates the continuity of Achaemenid courtly traditions. The ceramic evidence from forts suggests their construction or enhancement likely occurred in the second and third centuries CE, confirming a local power base in the Hormuz region, further supported by the Parthian archer relief at Qir. Ardashir employed a combination of military force, diplomacy, and political marriages to subdue these powers, actions essential for overcoming local resistance and gaining political legitimacy. Ultimately, southern Fars was a theatre of complex political and military competition during the Parthian-Sasanian transition. The resistance of local families and the Sasanian drive for integration reflect the tension between decentralized Parthian structures and a centralized Sasanian state. Further research in southern Fars is crucial to better understand both the formation of the Sasanian empire and patterns of local resistance to centralization.

Keywords

• Parthian Families
• Sasanians
• Ardashir Babakan
• Southern Fars
• Castle
• Hormuz
• Parthian Pottery

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