Journal of Archaeological Studies

Rereading the Stucco Paintings of Hall in Bandian Fire Temple and a Response to Recent Criticisms

Mahdi Rahbar

Volume 14, Issue 3 , October 2022, , Pages 69-92

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2021.331938.143058

Abstract

During the last half of the 4th century CE, we recognize the presence of a desert-dwelling tribe called the Huns or the Hephthalites, who invaded the northeastern borders of Iran, killing ... Read More During the last half of the 4th century CE, we recognize the presence of a desert-dwelling tribe called the Huns or the Hephthalites, who invaded the northeastern borders of Iran, killing and looting. These people, who had flowed from western China to Central Asia, invaded northern Khorasan from time to time. The presence of such a great enemy forced several Sassanid kings to sally to the east to defend this important border, among them was Yazdgerd I, whose campaign to repel these invaders lasted seven years. The Dastgerd of Yazd Shaporan and the Bandian fire temple have been mentioned as Yazdgerd’s place of residence. Like Yazdgerd, Bahram V was also aware of the potential danger of nomads from the north and his presence on the front caused a heavy defeat for the Hephthalites. This is memorialized in the Bandian Dargaz, one of the fire temples of the Sassanid period. In the hall of this fire temple, the events of the war between Bahram V and the Hephthalite king are painted on stucco. In these stuccos, various scenes of Bahram V's departure from Ctesiphon to fight with the king of the Hephthalites has been shown in the form of successive motifs. The mentioned stuccos have been researched based on historical texts. In addition to the plaster motifs, the Sasanian Pahlavi inscriptions inscribed on the wall of the altar of the fire temple also provide additional context for some of these motifs. This fire temple, which was built during the time of Yazdgerd I, was developed further during the time of Bahram V, especially concerning the elaboration of stucco motifs. This fire temple was destroyed by the Hephthalites during the time of the Sasanian king Pirouz. Therefore, only a part of the lower part of the stucco remains. The present author's comments about some of the characters in this stucco have been criticized. We believe that this criticism, while welcome, has not been careful in matching motifs with some historical events.

Color and Polychromy in Sasanian Rock Reliefs

Negin Miri

Volume 14, Issue 1 , June 2022, , Pages 155-181

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2021.324008.143022

Abstract

Sasanians created more than thirty rock reliefs during their reign, most of which are loacated in their homeland of Pars. The study of Sasanian monumental rock reliefs has a long tradition ... Read More Sasanians created more than thirty rock reliefs during their reign, most of which are loacated in their homeland of Pars. The study of Sasanian monumental rock reliefs has a long tradition and these fascinating monuments have been subject of scrutiny from many different perspectives. Nevertheless, one major issue still remains relatively unattended: how did these reliefs appear to ancient viewers? This broad question can be considered from at least two different angles: firstly, the relationship between the reliefs and their built and natural environment and secondly the original appearance of the reliefs, which now appear as grey rocky surfaces to us, when they were created and during their time of splendor. While the issue of polychromy in the Achaemenid rock art and architecture has been subject of intensive studies, apart from few brief references, this subject has not attracted much attention among scholars of Sasanian art and archaeology. Were these monuments decorated with color in their original form? If so, what colors were most commonly used? Can we reconstruct the colorful appearance of these reliefs? While empirical evidence of coloring has not been thoroughly documented on Sasanian reliefs yet, examination of several literary evidence as well as application of polychromy in other forms of Sasanian art, such as wall paintings, textiles, mosaics and stucco decorations can provide valuable indirect data on the subject and elucidate the Sasanian palette. Based on a such variety of evidence, as well as the long tradition of polychromy in ancient Iran at least from the Neo-Elamite period up to the Qajar era, it seems fairly rational that Sasanian rock reliefs were indeed colorful images standing out against their rocky background. Considering the close relation between three domains of wall painting, stucco decorating and rock reliefs, colorful appearance of Sasanian rock reliefs can be reasonably reconstructed

Military Strategy in the Sasanian Empire

Ehsan Khonsari Nejad; Seyed Mehdi Mousavi Kouhpar; Sorur Khorashadi

Volume 13, Issue 3 , September 2021, , Pages 45-42

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2020.303502.142882

Abstract

It is difficult to debate about the planning, correct implementation, and effectiveness of a government's strategies, such as defining the concept of the strategy. Having a strong military ... Read More It is difficult to debate about the planning, correct implementation, and effectiveness of a government's strategies, such as defining the concept of the strategy. Having a strong military force and utilizing a variety of efficient and modern armament has always been one of the ideals of governments throughout history. The Iranian states have not been exempted from this rule and have used their financial and human resources to achieve these goals. Although the Sasanians were more advanced in many aspects of administration and military than the previous Iranian governments, they could not have been so successful in military affairs without careful strategic planning. The question is, what military strategy did the Sasanians adopt for the maintenance and the continuity of their empire? The answer to this question can be summarized in a variety of grand, long-term and short-term strategies. The very hostile strategy of the Sasanian government is not very much in line with modern theories, but it was fruitful and effective in the tumultuous late antiquity. Without their grand strategy, the Sasanian kings would not have been able to achieve numerous lasting and dramatic victories. Through the application of this strategy, they maintained and strengthened the position of the royal family among the traditional aristocracy (feudal clans), clergy, warlords, high nobility, and so on. In this paper, in order to find answers for our question, we attempt to explain the various types of strategies and tactics of the Sasanians through a descriptive-comparative-analytical approach and examine their role in the power, weakness, durability, or decline of their empire. The result generally shows the efficacy of the various Sasanian strategies and tactics in the early and middle periods, but the strategic errors of certain kings in the late period and several centuries of persistence and repetition of some aspects of their grand strategy resulted in undermining of their government

Studying, Identification and Position of the Beardless Person in the Ardashir Babakan's Reliefs

Hamzeh Ghobadi Zadeh; Ali Asghar Selahshur; Younes Yousef Vand

Volume 13, Issue 1 , July 2021, , Pages 167-188

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2021.270894.142650

Abstract

A clean-shaven person behind the king is shown in the four Ardashir Babakan's reliefs in Firuzabad, Naghsh-e Rostam, and Naghsh-e Rajab. The various approaches have been suggested about ... Read More A clean-shaven person behind the king is shown in the four Ardashir Babakan's reliefs in Firuzabad, Naghsh-e Rostam, and Naghsh-e Rajab. The various approaches have been suggested about this person's identity, mentioned with various names and titles such as fly-whisk bearer eunuch, the servant or bodyguard of the king. The comparison of this type of iconography with those of the same preceding examples the Sasanid state in Iran during the Achaemenid and Assyrian periods shows that the shaving of the face is one of the common traditions among high-ranking clerics, which is most likely continued the later periods and especially, the Sasanid. Also, there is the possibility of belonging mentioned person to person other than the royal family based on the analysis of some of the available emblems and historical narratives. The present study is based on historical and archaeological information, which has provided new information about a clean-shaven person behind the king, shown in the four Ardashir Babakan's reliefs in Firuzabad, Naghsh-e Rostam, and Naghsh-e Rajab. This paper examines the beardless person's figure in the Ardashir I's reliefs and similar examples in the archaeological evidence such as reliefs, seals, and historical narratives. Furthermore, we are trying to determine the identification and probable position of this person. The most critical questions in this research are the following: 1- What is the identification of the beardless person in the Ardashir Babakan's reliefs? 2- What is the position of the beardless person in the Ardashir Babakan's reliefs? Most researchers have used the titles such as whisk-bearer, eunuch, servants, or bodyguards of the king. Lukonin has described this person as the Karen dynasty representative and attributed the carved emblem on his kolāh to this dynasty (Lukonin, 2005: 309). Ghirshman identifies him as a Sasanid nobleman (Ghirshman, 2011: 125), and Hinz describes him as bitaxš of Ardashir (Hinz2006: 276). By studying Sasanid riders' descent in the relief of warrior's war in Firuzabad, Kalani considers this person as the representative of the Soren family by a special emblem on his kolāh (Kalani, 2017a: 90; Kalani, 2017b: 204). Mousavi Haji and Sarfaraz believe that this person has been a servant and bodyguard of the king (Mousavi Haji and Sarfaraz, 2017: 72). The presence of beardless persons (or clean-shaven?) has a long history among the civilizations of the Ancient Near East; for example, we can see the examples of these people in different periods, such as Assyrian and Achaemenid ones, and in the Sasanid period, on the reliefs and seals later. Specimens of beardless persons are seen in ancient Near East works such as the Achaemenid and Assyrian periods (Figure 1, 2, 3, 4). A tradition that seems to have lasted until the Sasanid period, like Kerdīr (Figure 12). He reached such a very high position in the Sasanids' political structure that Narseh mentioned his name in the inscription of "Paikuli" among his noblemen and loyalists. Also, a person without a beard is seen in Ardashir I's reliefs in Fars. We can quickly identify these people as servants. Indeed, holding a device such as fly-whisk (?) not only did not create a disturb and disorder in their task, but also they could reach a position that everywhere are portrayed behind the king, and their Specimens are visible in the reliefs of the Assyrian, Achaemenid, and Sasanid (including Kerdīr). It seems the person who has been portrayed without a beard in all of Ardashir I's reliefs in Fars is enjoying such a position (Figure 7, 8, 9, 10, 11). Regarding all of Ardashir Babakan's reliefs, this beardless person is portrayed with a diadem and royal ribbons, so he cannot be one of the Sasanid kingdom people. We should search for his identity among non-royal family members. Among the courtiers of Ardashir are only Tansar and Abarsam, that different narratives exist about these two persons, especially in the Islamic sources are mentioned about their high position among the clerics. Tansar has not been mentioned in any sources contemporary with the Sasanid. Abarsam is mentioned in the inscriptions of the Shāpūr I's Ka'ba-i Zardusht among the Ardashir's courtiers, not as the clergy or Ardashir's vizier, but as one of the courtiers in the fifteenth row of this inscription. Regarding this person in the relief of Ardashir's war with Ardawan IV and Ardashir's investiture from Ahura Mazda, he has been both the high political and the first rank of the clergy society. According to Ibn Balkhi's version about Ardashir's vizier called Nansar, some scholars consider Tansar and Abarsam one person. He is named as "Mobad-e Mobadan" in epic texts, such as Karname-ye Ardahsir, and mentioned in the Shahnameh Ferdowsi with various titles, such as "Dastūr", vizier, "Mobad" and "Kadkhodā or Kadiwar (alderman)". The likeness of this person with the great Sasanian cleric is that like Kerdīr carrying the sword in the reliefs of Sarāb-e Bahrām and Sarmashhad, this person also, in addition to fighting on the battlefield of Tangab-e Firuzabad with the Parthian rival, in other Ardashir's reliefs carries a sword indicating this person has had a strong political influence, in addition to the high ranking clergy, as well as Kerdīr. This is a crucial point in rejecting the approaches of those who regard this person as a simple servant or a eunuch holding a fly-whisk behind the king's head. Is it reasonable a servant who is only his duty to hold a fly-whisk (?) behind the king's head carrying the weapon with his own? On the other hand, the carved emblem on his kolāh shows his descent and ancestry. Emblems related to the family of essential persons were carved on their kolāh, not a servant whose duty was only holding fly-whisk (?). Regarding the courtiers of Ardashir, Abarsam is the only person who has received the honorific title, "Ardashir's Farr" or Ardashir glory has been named in many sources as the senior clergy and grand vizier, so it seems has had a very high position. If we accept the view of the scholars that Parthian's adversary of the beardless person in the third scene of the relief of the warrior's war is the king of Ahwaz, or according to Henning, Ardawan V Elymais, probably can be more trusted in Tabari's version about the encounter king of Ahvaz with Abarsam who has attacked to the Ardashir Khorra in the absence of Ardashir, and should be considered the third scene of Firuzabad I's relief related to this battle and battle scene between the king of Ahwaz and Abarsam (Figure 7, 8). Probably a person portrayed without a beard in all of Ardashir's reliefs is Abarsam, who had both a very high political position because of his numerous services to Ardashir, and senior clergy of the Sasanid period appeared with this portrait and figure in the reliefs according to the tradition of shaving face among the clerics.

An Overview on Three Seasons of Archaeological Excavations in Jahangir Site, Ilam

Leila Khosravi

Volume 12, Issue 4 , May 2021, , Pages 77-94

Abstract

< p dir="ltr">Jahangir is one of the most prominent Sasanian sites In the west of Iran that excavated due to locating in the flood level of Kangir dam (Eyvan). The deficiency ... Read More

Analyzing Archaeological Finds from the Chehrabad Salt Mine

Abolfazl Aali; Thomas Stollner; Bahman Firuzmandi

Volume 11, Issue 2 , October 2019, , Pages 191-210

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.73118

Abstract

The Chehrabad salt mine is one of the rare ancient salt mine in the world and the only identified salt mine in Iran which has evidences of salt extracting over a long time span from ... Read More

The Visual Structure of Legitimacy in the Sasanian and Byzantine Works

Ghazaleh Irani Arbaty; Mohammad Khazaie

Volume 10, Issue 2 , January 2019, , Pages 1-18

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2018.68504

Abstract

The concept of legitimation in the Sasanian was formed on Khwarrah and provided a spiritual authority for their king. Khwarrah as a Godly force, due to the government communications ... Read More

Comparing Ancient Wall Paintings of Kuh-e Khwaje Zabol and Shahr-e Gur, Firouzabad Fars

gholam reza rahmani; Ahmad Chaychi Amirkhiz; Mohammad Mokari

Volume 9, Issue 2 , April 2018, , Pages 43-56

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2018.240138.142467

Abstract

There are few Wall Paintings remained from the Parthian and Sassanid era in Iran.These limited examples play a major role in the development of the study and our knowledge on pre-Islamic ... Read More

Re-Identifying the Location of Ancient Port of Mahruban on the Persian Gulf Based on Excavation and Written Evidence

Mohammad Esmaeil Esmaeili Jelodar; Mohammad Mortezayi

Volume 4, Issue 2 , February 2013, , Pages 13-31

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2013.32117

Abstract

Archaeological evidence from Islamic era reflects trade contacts and flourishing commerce in the Persian Gulf. Indeed, some regional infrastructures surviving from Sassanian times could ... Read More

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Keywords = Sasanian

Rereading the Stucco Paintings of Hall in Bandian Fire Temple and a Response to Recent Criticisms

Abstract

Color and Polychromy in Sasanian Rock Reliefs

Abstract

Military Strategy in the Sasanian Empire

Abstract

Studying, Identification and Position of the Beardless Person in the Ardashir Babakan's Reliefs

Abstract

An Overview on Three Seasons of Archaeological Excavations in Jahangir Site, Ilam

Abstract

Analyzing Archaeological Finds from the Chehrabad Salt Mine

Abstract

The Visual Structure of Legitimacy in the Sasanian and Byzantine Works

Abstract

Comparing Ancient Wall Paintings of Kuh-e Khwaje Zabol and Shahr-e Gur, Firouzabad Fars

Abstract

Re-Identifying the Location of Ancient Port of Mahruban on the Persian Gulf Based on Excavation and Written Evidence

Abstract