Journal of Archaeological Studies

Southern Fars during the transition from the Parthian to the Sasanian Era: Historical and Archaeological Evidence

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

Khadijeh Gholami 1
Yaghoub Mohammadifar 2

1 Ph. D Candidate, Department of Archeology, Faculty of Art and Architecture, University of Bu-Ali Sina, Hamadan, Iran.

2 Professor, Department of Archeology, Faculty of Art and Architecture, University of Bu-Ali Sina, Hamadan, Iran. (Corresponding Author).

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2025.397270.143357
Abstract
Abstract
In the early third century CE, Iran witnessed profound political and military transformations that led to the rise of one of the most significant dynasties in its history: the Sasanians. According to historical sources, Ardashir engaged in several battles to gain control over Fars, particularly its southern regions. In Sasanian archaeological studies, the powerful families of southern Fars during the transition from the Parthian to the Sasanian period have been largely overlooked. The present research aims to identify the powerful families in southern Fars based on historical evidence, addressing the following question: What archaeological data indicate the existence of local powers in southern Fars during the Parthian period? Furthermore, it examines the relationship of these families with the Parthian government and Ardashir’s methods for confronting them. This study employs a descriptive-analytical methodology, utilizing both library and field resources. Historical sources mention families such as the Nōšāzād and Sabak in Abrasās, the Milādiyān in Laristan, and powers like Haftvād in Kojārān and Sanatruq in Bahrain. Based on historical sources, military strategies, diplomacy, and alliances with Parthian families were among the key approaches used by the Sasanians to consolidate power and legitimize their rule in Iran, particularly in southern Fars. Additionally, archaeological findings confirm the presence of powerful families in southern Fars. The site of Tomb-e Bot, interpreted as a semi-royal seat during the Parthian era, is indicative of existing power structures in the region. The factors contributing to the power of these families included kinship ties with the Parthians, geopolitical position, control over trade routes, and a network of fortresses.
Keywords: Parthian Families, Sasanians, Ardashir Babakan, Southern Fars, Castle, Hormuz, Parthian Pottery.
 
1. Introduction
In the early third century CE, Iran witnessed profound political and military upheavals that led to the rise of one of the greatest dynasties in its history—the Sasanians. However, this process was neither simple nor unchallenged. Historical sources mention several battles fought by Ardashir I in southern Fars, some of which ended in his defeat. The resistance of southern Fars’ noble families against Ardashir’s advances not only highlights the presence of local power centers but also underscores their role as serious rivals to northern Fars. Although Ardashir ultimately succeeded in crushing these resistances after numerous arduous and protracted battles, thereby incorporating southern Fars—a key strategic region for controlling the Persian Gulf—into his domain, this process also reflects the political and social complexities of the era.
This study seeks to identify the powerful noble families of southern Fars based on historical evidence, addressing the following question: Which archaeological data attest to the existence of local powers in southern Fars during the Parthian period? Additionally, it examines these families’ relationship with the Parthian Empire and Ardashir’s strategies for confronting them.
Despite the significance of the transition from the Parthians to the Sasanians, independent historical and archaeological studies on southern Fars—particularly concerning its local powers—remain scarce. Existing research has largely been limited to archaeological surveys or treated the subject only peripherally within broader studies of Sasanian history. This scholarly gap underscores the need for a more detailed examination of the role played by southern Fars’ noble families in the region’s political dynamics and their interactions with the emerging Sasanian central authority. Understanding these dynamics not only enhances our comprehension of the Sasanian state formation process but may also elucidate patterns of local resistance against political centralization.
 
2. The Geopolitical Position and Role as an Intermediary Hub
The southern Fars region, which during the Sasanian period was part of Ardashir-Khwarrah (Ibn Balkhī, 2005: 132–141), encompassed a vast area along the coasts and hinterlands of the Persian Gulf. Southern Fars has always held strategic importance due to its unique connective position, serving as a bridge between the shores of the Persian Gulf and inland power centers (Fig. 1).
Additionally, the southern Zagros Mountains functioned as a natural barrier, playing a vital role in the region’s security and human geography. With their complex topography and varying elevations, these mountains formed enclosed plains surrounded by highlands, acting both as a natural defensive fortification and providing a suitable environment for the emergence of semi-autonomous and stable communities (Fig. 2).
The climatic conditions of southern Fars were another critical factor in resisting external enemies. Ibn Balkhī describes the climate of Irāhestān in southern Fars as follows: “No army can station there except during the three months of spring; in winter, they cannot remain due to rainfall and lack of pasture, and in summer, due to the extreme heat” (2005: 141). This description highlights how the region’s harsh weather posed significant challenges for foreign forces.
 
3. The Powerful Families in Southern Fars
Southern Fars under the Parthians was governed by semi-independent dynasties, though their territorial control remains unclear. Historical sources like the Kār-nāmag ī Ardašīr, Shahnameh, and al-Tabari’s History mention several local rulers in early 3rd-century CE Southern Fars (Table 1):
1. The Nōshzād in Abrasās (Jahrom) (al-Tabari 1983:582; Ferdowsi 1968, VII:146).
2. The Sabāk in Abrasās  (Ferdowsi 1968, VII:132; Mashkoor 1950:16) in Jahrom.
3. Haftvād  in Kojarān (likely in southern Iran, near Lār) (Tabari 1983:582; Ferdowsi 1968, VII:139–154; Mashkoor 1960:21–32 (Kār-nāmag; Mashkoor 1960:24)
4. Abtenbud in southern Fars (al-Tabari 1983:582; Mashkoor 1960:23–25)
5. Sanatruq in Bahrain (al-Tabari 1983:584). 
6. The Miladian House of Larestan, though absent in Ardashir’s campaigns, is noted by Nöldeke (1978: 24) as being of Parthian origin. Gorgin Milad - mentioned in the Shahnameh (Ferdowsi 1971, IX: 30-32) and later Safavid records - maintained their ruling power until 1601 CE (Fig. 3).
 
4. Archaeological Evidence of Local Powers in Southern Fars
Archaeological and historical research on the northern coasts and hinterlands of the Persian Gulf has been limited. However, the few studies conducted have identified and uncovered significant sites from the Parthian period. Among the most important sites is Tomb-e Bot in Mohr County, interpreted as a quasi-royal seat. During its second cultural phase (80–260 CE), Tappeh Bot provides some of the most significant cultural materials related to local powers in southern Fars. The artifacts discovered at the site reflect a declined courtly style of the Achaemenids by the 2nd century CE. (Askari Chaverdi, 2013: 157–193; Askari Chaverdi, 2017: 127–150).
 
5. Fortresses and Strongholds
Archaeological activities in southern Iran, particularly in southern Fars, have primarily been limited to surveys and the identification of ancient sites. Surveys in Lamerd and Mohr counties (whose results have been published) indicate that out of 76 identified sites, only 12 show evidence of Parthian occupation (Askari Chaverdi, 2013: 81–83). However, none of these sites fall within the scope of the present study.
Between 2014 and 2018, ceramics from three sites in the Sasanian Hormuz region (southern Fars) were examined: Qal’eh Golrokh (Gholami et al., 2022), Qal’eh Kopir (Ashrafi, 2017), and Tomb-e-goveh (Pasban, 2018). Studies of these ceramics confirmed traces of Parthian-period presence. Accordingly, the Hormuz region of Fars, with its eight fortresses situated on highlands and foothills across an area approximately 45 km long and 20 km wide, was selected as the study area.
The Hormuz-Fars region, corresponding to the Beyram and Chahvarz districts (Gholami & Mohammadi-Far, 2024: 62-63) in southern Fars, has revealed eight identified fortresses (Image 6). The fortresses of Faryab, Kapir, and Salavar are situated on Mount Bol, while the fortresses of Nehl, Khajagan, Golrokh, Guri, and Lid are located on the mountains of Alamarvdasht.
Studies conducted on ceramic data have led to the identification of diagnostic Parthian pottery types, such as coarse black ware with raised bands, painted, glazed, burnished, and Burnished and Polished Pottery, indicating Parthian-period settlement in the Hormuz plain.
 
6. Conclusion
The political transformations of third-century CE southern Fars, coinciding with the Parthian decline and Sasanian rise, underscore the critical role of local families in the region’s power dynamics. This study, drawing on historical and archaeological evidence, demonstrates that these local dynasts leveraged political and cultural legitimacy derived from their Parthian affiliations, claims of ancient ancestry, strategic geopolitical positions, control over trade routes, and a network of fortified castles—which continued into the Sasanian period—to resist Ardashir Babakan’s centralizing policies. Archaeological data, particularly the site of Tomb-e Bot, indicates the continuity of Achaemenid courtly traditions. The ceramic evidence from forts suggests their construction or enhancement likely occurred in the second and third centuries CE, confirming a local power base in the Hormuz region, further supported by the Parthian archer relief at Qir. Ardashir employed a combination of military force, diplomacy, and political marriages to subdue these powers, actions essential for overcoming local resistance and gaining political legitimacy. Ultimately, southern Fars was a theatre of complex political and military competition during the Parthian-Sasanian transition. The resistance of local families and the Sasanian drive for integration reflect the tension between decentralized Parthian structures and a centralized Sasanian state. Further research in southern Fars is crucial to better understand both the formation of the Sasanian empire and patterns of local resistance to centralization.

Keywords

Parthian Families
Sasanians
Ardashir Babakan
Southern Fars
Castle
Hormuz
Parthian Pottery
Subjects
- ابن‌بلخی (1384). فارس نامه. به تصحیح: لسترنج و الن نیکلسون، تهران: اساطیر.
- اخوان‌زنجانی، جلیل، (1356). «شرح پاره‌ای از سکه‌های لاری ضرب شده در ایران». هنر و مردم، 184 و 185: 97- 86.
- استرابو (1382). جغرافیای استرابو: سرزمین‌های زیر فرمان هخامنشیان. ترجم: همایون صنعتی‌زاده، چاپ اول، تهران: موقوفات دکتر محمود افشار.
- اشرافی، سکینه، (1396). «طبقه بندی و گونه‌شناسی سفال تاریخی فارس، لارستان (مطالعۀ موردی: قلعه کوپیر». پایان‌نامۀ کارشناسی ارشد، دانشگاه بوعلی‌سینا همدان، دانشکدۀ هنر و معماری (منتشر نشده).
- اصفهانی، حمزه بن الحسن، (1346). سنی الملوک الارض و الانبیاء (تاریخ پیامبران و شاهان). ترجمۀ جعفر شعار، تهران: بنیاد فرهنگ.
- اکبری، امیر (1387). «کعبه زرتشت و اهمیت تاریخی کتیبه شاپور اول ساسانی». پژوهش‌نامه تاریخ، 3 (11): 29-70.
- اورتوم، نیکلاس لئو، (1401). فرمانروایی خدنگ‌ها / برآمدن شاهنشاهی پارتی در خاورمیانه یونانی‌مآب.ترجمۀ شاهین آریامنش، چاپ اول، تهران: پژوهشگاه میراث‌فرهنگی، صنایع‌دستی و گردشگری.
- بالاتی، سیلویا، (1399). تارخ و باستان‌شناسی اقوام زاگرس در هزارۀ اول پیش‌ازمیلاد. ترجمۀ صمد علیون، تبریز، پروژه ترجمۀ حسنلو.
- برفی، سیروس، (1399). «گزارش کوتاه بررسی باستان‌شناسی شهرستان گراش». مجموعه مقالات کوتاه هجدهمین گردهم‌آیی سالانه باستان‌شناسی، گردآورنده: روح‌الله شیرازی، چاپ اول، پژوهشگاه میراث‌فرهنگی و گردشگری، صص 131-136 .
- برهان، محمد حسین بن خلف تبریزی، (1342). برهان قاطع. جلد 2، تهران: ابن‌سینا.
- بلعمی، ابوالفضل (1353). تاریخ بلعمی. جلد 2، تصحیح محمدتقی بهار، تهران: زوار.
- پاتس، دنیل (1385). باستان‌شناسی ایلام. مترجم: زهرا باستی، تهران: سمت.
- پاسبان، عمران، (1397). «بررسی باستان‌شناختی محوطه باستانی تنب گِوُه و ارتباطات فرهنگی و تاریخی آن با محوطه‌های پیرامونی با استناد به یافته‌های سفالی». پایان‌نامۀ کارشناسی‌ارشد، دانشگاه بوعلی‌سینا همدان، دانشکدۀ هنر و معماری (منتشر نشده).
- پورشریعتی، پروانه، (1399). افول و سقوط شاهنشاهی ساسانی (اتحادیه ساسانی - پارتی و فتح ایران به‌دست عرب‌ها). ترجمۀ آوا واحدی نوایی، چاپ سوم، تهران: نشر نی.
- ترکمان، اسکندر بیگ، (1382). تاریخ عالم آرای عباسی. جلد 2، به‌تصحیح: ایرج افشار، تهران: امیرکبیر.
- خادم، حسین؛ کریمی اصغر؛ و زندوی، سید حسن، (1391). تذکره سید عفیف الدین شاه زندوی (ع). تهران: نشر پیروز.
- خسروزاده، علیرضا، (1398). باستان‌شناسی خلیج‌فارس در دورۀ اشکانی و ساسانی. چاپ دوم، تهران: سمت.
- دریایی، تورج، (1383). شاهنشاهی ساسانی. ترجمۀ مرتضی ثاقب‌فر، چاپ اول، تهران: ققنوس.
- دینوری، ابوحنیفه احمد بن داود، (1364). اخبار الطوال. ترجمۀ محمود مهدوی دامغانی، تهران: نی
- سرخوش، احمد، (1393). «بررسی سیستماتیک و فشرده منطقه بیرم لارستان در پس‌کرانه‌های خلیج‌فارس». گزارش‌های سیزدهمین گردهمایی سالانه باستان‌شناسی ایران، تهران: میراث‌فرهنگی: 168 -171.
- سرداری، علیرضا؛ و سرخوش، احمد، (1397). «بررسی و شناسایی باستان‌شناسی لارستان، فارس». گزارش‌های هفدهمین گردهمایی سالانه باستان‌شناسی ایران، جلد 1، تهران: پژوهشگاه میراث‌فرهنگی: 656-663.
- شهسواری، میثم، (1400). «معرفی چند گونۀ سفال متعلق به دوره تاریخی از حوزۀ فرهنگی هلیل‌رود». سپهر مجد (باستان‌شناسی دنیای ایرانی و سرزمین‌های پیرامون)، مرکز دائرةالمعارف بزرگ اسلامی: 525-538.
- صفرزاده، سعید؛ و برفی، سیروس، (1399). «گزارش کوتاه بررسی باستان‌شناسی شهرستان قیر و کارزین (بخش مرکزی)». مجموعه مقالات کوتاه هجدهمین گردهم‌آیی سالانه باستان‌شناسی، گردآورنده: روح‌الله شیرازی، چاپ اول، پژوهشگاه میراث‌فرهنگی و گردشگری: 519-521.
- طبری، محمد، (1362). تاریخ الرسل و الملوک (تاریخ طبری). ابوالقاسم پاینده، چاپ 2، جلد 2، تهران: اساطیر.
- عسکری‌چاوردی، علیرضا، (1392). پژوهش‌های باستان‌شناسی، کرانه‌های خلیج‌فارس شهرستان‌های لامرد و مهر، فارس. سبحان نور و دانشگاه هنر شیراز.
- عسکری‌چاوردی، علیرضا؛ و کائیم، باربارا، (1391). «پژوهش‌های باستان‌شناسی در منطقه کاریان لارستان: فرضیه‌ای درباره محل آتش آذرفرنبغ»، در: نامورنامه: مقاله‌هایی در پاسداشت یاد مسعود آذرنوش، به‌کوشش: حمید فهیمی و کریم علیزاده، تهران: ایران نگلر: 368-347
- غلامی، خدیجه؛ محمدی‌فر، یعقوب؛ و عسکری‌چاوردی، علیرضا، (1401). «بررسی روشمند محوطۀ قلعه گلرخ در دشت پس‌کرانه‌ای علامرودشت». پژوهش‌های باستان‌شناسی ایران، 12 (32): 188- 163. https://doi.org/10.22084/nb.2021.24225.2332
- غلامی، خدیجه؛ و محمدی‌فر، یعقوب، (1403). «بررسی پایگان آبی هرمز فارس در دورۀ ساسانی». سینوس پرسیکوس، 2 (3): 79 - 53. https://doi.org/10.22034/sp.2024.490206.1014
- غلامی، خدیجه؛ و زارعی، محمد‌ابراهیم، (1401). «بررسی پایگان آبی لارستان قدیم براساس منابع مکتوب و شواهد موجود از قرن 5 هجری تا پایان دوره قاجاریه». پژوهش‌های ایران‌شناسی، 23 (12): 26-44. https://jis.ut.ac.ir/article_89827.html#: ~: text=10.22059/jis.2022.338345.1085
- فرای، ریچارد، (1378). «پارس از زمان اسکندر تا دوران ساسانی». باستان‌شناسی و هنر ایران (32 مقاله در بزرگداشت عزت‌الله نگهبان)، تهران: مرکز نشر دانشگاهی.
- فردوسی، ابوالقاسم، (1347). شاهنامه. جلد 7، براساس چاپ مسکو، به اهتمام: م. ن. عثمانوف، زیر نظر: ع. نوشین، تهران: دانش.
- فردوسی، ابوالقاسم، (1347). شاهنامه. جلد 9، براساس چاپ مسکو، به اهتمام: آ. برئلس زیر نظر: ع. نوشین، تهران دانش. 
- فردوسی، ابوالقاسم، (1384). شاهنامه. به تصحیح: ژول مول، چاپ هشتم، تهران: بهزاد.
- فرنبغ‌دادگی، (1390). بندهش. گزارنده: مهرداد بهار، تهران: توس.
- فره‌وشی، بهرام، (1381). فرهنگ فارسی به پهلوی. تهران: دانشگاه تهران.
- کریستن‌سن، آرتور، (1355). آفرینش زیانکار در روایات ایرانی. ترجمۀ احمد طباطبایی، تبریز: مؤسسه تاریخ و فرهنگ ایران. 
- کنت، درک، (1393). سفال‌های ساسانی و اسلامی راس‌الخیمه (طبقه‌بندی و بررسی تجارت در حوزه غربی اقیانوس هند). علیرضا خسروزاده و محمد مرتضایی، پروژه ترجمۀ حسنلو، تبریز.
- محمدی‌فر، یعقوب؛ و خونانی، علیرضا، (1393). «بازسازی تاریخ پادشاهی پارس در دوران اشکانی». مطالعات باستان‌شناسی، 6(2): 149-165. http://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2015.54180
- مشکور، محمدجواد، (1329). کارنامۀ اردشیر بابکان. تهران: دنیای کتاب.
- مرعشی، سید ظهیرالدین، (1363). تاریخ طبرستان و رویان و مازندران. اهتمام: برنهارد دازن، تهران: دیبا. 
- مزداپور، کتایون، (1383). داغ گل سرخ و چهارده گفتار دیگر درباره اسطوره. تهران: اساطیر.
- مقدسی، ابوعبدالله محمد بن احمد، (1361). احسن التقاسیم فی معرفة الاقالیم. جلد 2، ترجمۀ علینقی منزوی، تهران: نشر: کاویان. 
- منجم یزدی، ملاجلال، (1366). تاریخ عباسی یا روزنامه ملا جلال: شامل وقایع دربار شاه عباس صفوی. به تصحیح: ایرج افشار، تهران: امیر کبیر.
- منصوری، مجید؛ و لطفی‌نسب، کمال، (1394). «بررسی باستان‌شناسی بخش کردیانِ شهرستان جهرم، استان فارس». پیام‌باستان‌شناس، 12 (23): 102- 81. https://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.20084285.1394.12.23.6.2
- نولدکه، تئودور، (1357). حماسه ملی ایران، بزرگ علوی. چاپ سوم، تهران: سپهر.
- وثوقی، محمدباقر؛ عابدی‌راد، منوچهر؛ تقوی، کرامت الله؛ و رحمانی، صادق، (1387). تاریخ مفصل لارستان. جلد 1، چاپ 2، تهران: همسایه.
- هنینگ، والتر برونو، (1384). «یادداشت‌هایی درباره سنگ‌نوشته بزرگ شاپور یکم». ایران‌شناخت، یادنامۀ ویلیامز جکسن، گزارش: جلیل دوستخواه، تهران: نشر آگه: 293- 314.
- یارشاطر، احسان، (1389). تاریخ کمبریج ایران. ترجمۀ حسن اوشه، جلد 3، تهران: امیرکبیر
References
- Akbari, A., (2008). “The Ka’ba-ye Zartosht and the Historical Significance of Shapur I’s Inscription”. Pazhoheshname-ye Tarikh [Historical Research Journal] 3 (11): 29–70, (In Persian).
- Akhawan Zanjani, J., (1977). “Explanation of some Lari coins minted in Iran”. Honar va Mardom (Art and People), 184-185: 86-97 (In Persian).
- Al-Waqidi, M. b. U., (1997). Futuh al-Sham. Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyah. (in Arabic).
- Ashrafi, S., (2017). “Classification and Typology of Historical Ceramics in Fars, Laristan (Case Study: Kopir Castle)”. Master's Thesis, Bu Ali Sina University, Hamedan (Unpublished) (In Persian).
- Askari Chaverdi, A., (2013). Archaeological Research In Hinterland of Persian Gulf: Lamard and Mehr Districts, Fars. Sebhan Noor Publications and Shiraz University of Art (In Persian).
- Askari Chaverdi, A., (2017). “Post-Achaemenid Legacy of the Persian Gulf Hinterland: Systematic Survey of Surface Remains from Tomb-e Bot, Fars”. Iran. Ancient civilizations from Scythia to Siberia, 23(1): 127-150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700577-12341312
- Askari Chaverdi, A. & Kaim, B., (2012). “Archaeological Research in the Kāriyān Region of Laristan: A Hypothesis on the Location of the Ādur Farnbāg Fire Temple”. Nāmvar-nāmeh,  Articles in Honor of Masoud Azarnoush, Edited by Hamid Fahimi and Karim Alizadeh, First Edition, Tehran: Iran Negar: 347–368 (In Persian).
- Bal'ami, A., (1974). Tarikh-e Bal'ami [The History of Bal'ami]. M. T. Bahar, Ed.; Vol. 2, Tehran: Zavvar (In Persian).
- Balatti, S., (2020). History and Archaeology of the Zagros Peoples in the First Millennium BC. Translated by Samad Aliyoun Khajeh Dizaj, First Edition, Tabriz, Pruje-ye Tarjomeh-ye Hasanlu (In Persian).
- Barfi, S., (2020). “A Brief Report on the Archaeological Survey of Gerash County”. Short Papers from the 18th Annual Archaeological Conference, Compiled by Ruhollah Shirazi, First Edition, Pazhuheshgah-e Miras-e Farhangi va Gardeshgari: 131-136 (In Persian).
- Borhan, M., (1963). Borhan-e Qate. Vol. 2, Tehran: Ebn-e Sina.
- Boucharlat, R. & Labrousse, A., (1979). “Le palais d'ArtaxerxèsII sur la rive droite du Chaour à Suse”. Cahiers de la Délégation Archéologique Française en Iran (DAFI), 10: 19-136.‏
- Christensen, A., (1976). Āfarinesh-e Ziyānkār dar Revāyāt-e Irāni [The Creation of the Harmful One in Iranian Traditions]. A. Tabatabai Trans, Tabriz: Moasseseh-ye Tārikh va Farhang-e Irān (In Persian).
- Daryaee, T., (2004). Sasanian Empire. Mortaza Saqebfar translator, First Edition, Tehran, Qoqnus Publishing (In Persian).
- De Cardi, B., (1996). “A late Pre- Islamic Burial at al- Khatt, U.A.E”. Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, 7: 82-87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0471.1996.tb00091.x
- Esfahani, H., (1967). Tarikh-e Payambaran va Shahan [The History of Prophets and Kings]. Mohammad-Taqi Bahar Trans, Tehran: Bonyad-e Farhang. (In Persian).
- Farahvaši, B., (2002). Farhang-e Farsi be Pahlavi [Persian to Pahlavi Dictionary]. Tehran: Daneshgah-e Tehran. (In Persian).
- Farnbagh-Dadagi, (2011). Bundahishn. 5nd ed, M. Bahar, Trans, Tehran: Tus (In Persian).
- Ferdowsi, A., (1968). Shahnameh. Vol. 7, Based on the Moscow Edition, Edited by M.N. Osmanov under the Supervision of A. Noshiin, Tehran, Danesh (In Persian).
- Ferdowsi, A., (1971). Shahnameh. Vol. 9, Based on the Moscow Edition, Edited by A. Bertels under the Supervision of A. Noshiin, Tehran: Danesh (In Persian).
- Frye, R., (1999). Persia/ Fars  from Alexander to the Sassanians, The Iranian World Essays on Iranian Art and  Archaeology (32 Articles in Honor of Ezzatollah Negahban). Tehran: Markaz-e Nashr-e Daneshgahi.
- Gholami, Kh., Mohammadifar, Y. & Askari Chaverdi, A, (2022). “The Methodical Study of Qale’h-ye Golrokh Site in Hinterland Ala-Marvdasht Plain”. Pazhohesh-ha-ye Bastanshenasi Iran, 32 (12): 163-188 (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.22084/nb.2021.24225.2332
- Gholami, K. & Mohammadifar, Y., (2025). “A Study of Water Systems of Hormuz, Fars, during the Sasanian Period”. Sinus Persicus, 2(3): 53-79 (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.22034/sp.2024.490206.1014
- Gholami, Kh. & Zarei, M., (2022). “Study of old Larestan water systems based on written sources and available evidence (from the 5th century AH to the end of the Qajar period)”. Iranian Studies, 12(1): 24-44 (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.22059/jis.2022.338345.1085
- Henning, W, B., (2005). “Notes on the great inscription of Shapur I”. Irān-shenākht, Yādnāme-ye Williams Jackson, 293-314, Tehran: Āgah  (In Persian).
- Huff, D., (1984). “Das Felsrelife von Qir (Fars)”. Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Iran (AMI), 17: 221-247
- Ibn Balkhi, (2005). Farsnameh. Edited by: G. Le Strange and R.A. Nicholson, Tehran: Asatīr (In Persian).
- Kennet, D., (2007). “The Decline of eastern Arabia in the Sasanian period”. Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, 18: 86-122. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0471.2007.00274.x
- Kennet, D., (2014). Sasanian and Islamic Pottery from Ras al-Khaimah: Classification, Chronology and Analysis of Trade in the Western Indian Ocean. trans. by Alireza Khosrowzadeh & Mohammad Mortazai, Tabriz, Pruje-ye Tarjomeh-ye Hasanlu (In Persian).
- Khadem, H., Karimi, A. & Zandavi, S., (2012). Tazkerah-ye Seyed Afif al-Din Shah Zandavi. First Edition, Tehran: Pirooz Publishing (In Persian).
- Khosrowzadeh, A., (2019). Archaeology of the Persian Gulf in the Parthian and Sasanian Periods. Second Edition, Tehran, Samt (In Persian).
- Mansouri, M. & Lotfi Nasab, K., (2015). “Archaeological Survey of the Kordian District in Jahrom County, Fars Province”. Payam-e Bastanshenas, 12(23): 81-102 (In Persian). https://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.20084285.1394.12.23.6.
- Mashkur, M., (1950). Karnameh Ardashir Papkan. Tehran: Donya-ye Ketab (In Persian).
- Mar'ashi, S., (1984). History of Tabarestan, Ruyan and Mazandaran. Edited by Bernhard Dorn, First Edition, Tehran: Diba (In Persian).
- Mathiesen, H. E., (1992). Sculpture in the Parthian Empire: a Study in Chronology. Vol. 1: Catalogue, Aarhus.
- Mazdapour, K., (2004). Dāgh-e Gol-e Sorkh va Chahārdah Goftār-e Digar darbāre-ye. Tehran: Asātir (In Persian).
-Mohammadifar, Y. & Khounani, A., (2015). “History of Pars During the Arsacid Era Based on the Numismatic Evidence”. Journal of Archaeological Studies, 6(2): 149-165. https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2015.54180 (In Persian).
- Mouton, M., Benoist, A. & Mokaddem, K., (1994). “Excavations at Mleiha site: the 1993 and 1994 seasons”. Archaeological Surveys and Excavations in the Sharjah Emirate, 1993 and 1994. A Seventh Interim Report, 11-20.‏
- Munajjim Yazdi, M., (1987). Tarikh-e Abbasi ya Ruznameh-ye Molla Jalal: Events of Shah Abbas Safavi's Court. Edited by: Iraj Afshar, First Edition, Tehran, Amir Kabir (In Persian).
- Muqaddasi, A., (1982). Ahsan al-Taqasim fi Ma rifat al-Aqalim. Trans. by Alinqi Manzavi, vol 2, Tehran: Kavitan (In Persian).
- Noldeke, T., (1978). The Iranian national epic. Trans. by B. Alavi, 3rd ed. Tehran, Sepher (In Persian).
- Ortom, N., (2022). Reign of Arrows: The Rise of the Parthian Empire in the Hellenistic Middle East. Trans. by Shahin Ariamanesh, First Edition, Tehran: Pazhuheshgah-e Miras-e Farhangi, Sana’ye-e Dasti va Gardeshgari (In Persian).
- Pasban, O., (2018). “Archaeological Investigation of the Ancient Site of Tang-e Gav and Its Cultural and Historical Relations with Surrounding Sites Based on Ceramic Findings”. Hamedan: Bu-Ali Sina University (Unpublished), (In Persian).
- Potts, D., (2006). The Archaeology of Elam. Trans. by Zahra Basti, First Edition, Tehran: Samt (In Persian).
- Pourshariati, P., (2020). Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran. Trans. by Ava Vahidi Navaei, Third Edition, Tehran: Nashr-e Ney  (In Persian).
- Safarzadeh, S. & Barfi, S., (2020). “Brief Report on the Archaeological Survey of Qir and Karzin County”. in: Short Papers from the 18th Annual Archaeological Conference, Compiled by Ruhollah Shirazi, First Edition, Pazhuheshgah-e Miras-e Farhangi va Gardeshgari: 519-521 (In Persian).
- Sardar, A. & Sarkhosh, A., (2018). “Archaeological Survey and Identification in Larestan, Fars”. Reports of the Seventeenth Annual Iranian Archaeology Conference, Vol 1, Tehran: Research Institute of Cultural Heritage: 656-663 (In Persian).
- Sarkhosh, A., (2014). “Systematic and Intensive Survey of the Byrem Region, Larestan, in the hinterland of the Persian Gulf”. Reports of the Thirteenth Annual Iranian Archaeology Conference, Tehran: Cultural Heritage: 168-171 (In Persian).
- Shahsavari, M., (2021). “Introduction of Several Historical Period Pottery Types from the Halil River Cultural Basin”. Sepahr-e Majd (Archaeology of the Iranian World and Surrounding Lands), Markaz-e Dā'eratolma'āref-e Bozorg-e Eslāmi: 525-538 (In Persian).
- Šmíd, J., Uvizl, M., Shobrak, M., Salim, A. F. A., AlGethami, R. H. M., Algethami, A. R., ... & Carranza, S., (2021). “Swimming through the sands of the Sahara and Arabian deserts: Phylogeny of sandfish skinks (Scincidae, Scincus) reveals a recent and rapid diversification”. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 155: 107012.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2020.107012
- Stein, M. A., (1937). Archaeological Reconnaissances in North Western India and south Eastern Iran. London
- Strabo, (2003). Strabo's Geography – supject nationts of the Achaemenid Empire. Sanei-zadeh translator, Tehran, Moghofate Dr. Afshar Endowment Foundation (In Persian).
- Tabari, M., (1983). History of the Prophets and Kings (Tarikh al-Tabari, Vol 2). Trans. by Abu al-Qasim Payandeh, Tehran: Esatir, 2th Edition (In Persian).
- Turkman, I. B., (2003). Tarikh-e Alam-ara-ye Abbasi (Vol. 2), Edited by: Iraj Afshar, First Edition, Tehran, Amir Kabir Publishing (In Persian).
- Vosoughi, M., Abdi Rad, M., Taghavi, K. & Rahmani, S., (2008). A Comprehensive History of Larestan, Vol 1, Tehran: Hamsaeh (In Persian).
- Whitcomb, D. S., (1985). Before the Koses and Nightigales excavations at Qasr- Abu Nasr, old Shiraz. NewYork, Metrolitan Museum of ART.
- Yarshater, E., (2010). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol 3, Trans. by H. Anousheh, Tehran: Amir Kabir (In Persian).

  • Receive Date 13 June 2025
  • Revise Date 28 August 2025
  • Accept Date 07 October 2025

Home

Contact Us