Journal of Archaeological Studies

Abstract Based on the historical texts from the Achaemenian Empire, there have been tribes living in Sistan known as Drangiana or Zaranka. According to the texts these tribes assisted Cyrus by sending food and since then they were called Givers (assisters). Archaeological studies in Sistan introduced some places such as (Dahaneh-ye Qolaman (the Slaves’ Valley) and Surkh Dagh) to be as the settlement site of Evergetáe but there have been no reliable evidence for such suggestions. By conducting an archaeological study in Sistan we tried to locate several new Achaemenian areas, by which we explored new data which enable us to identify the actual location of Evergetáes. In this research comparison made on the characteristics of Evergetáes as mentioned in the written sources on one hand and archaeological specifications of the sites across the different parts of Sistan on the other hand we suggest an alternative location for the Achaemenian Evergetáe in the Sistan plain.

Abstract The present paper intends to highlight excavations on cemeteries and the situation and condition of burial corpses to figure out the social behavior of the human past in the south-eastern civilization of Iran during the third millennium B.C. The tradition of burying the dead bodies in the ancient region of south east of Iran is not clearly determined. It is due to the limited number of excavated cemeteries and their distribution in this region. However, the Shahdad's excavations, Mahtoutabad, Khaje Askar, 14th Bampur Graveyard, and especially the Shahre Sokhta as a world heritage site cantina the most complete reports enable the writer to investigate ancient cemeteries in the region. Statistical data provided from the Shahre Sokhta cemetery between 1999-2009 field seasons were used as baseline information and analytical framework to study the burial traditions of the past millennia in the South East of Iran.

Abstract Hubuškia is a royal city and country in Northern Zagros and one of the significant buffer states between Assyrian and Urartian spheres of influence during the 9th to 7th centuries BC. Our information about Hubuškia comes primarily from Neo-Assyrian cuneiform texts. The localization of this place name and the petty state of the first half of first millennium BC has been a subject of debate and dissension among scholars and Assyriologists through the past century. The authors of the present study, based on the Neo-Assyrian inscriptions dealing with the Zagros polities, geographical analysis of the inscriptions and study of the archaeological founds derived from four seasons of excavation in Tape Rabat, suggests that ancient site of Rabat, could be comparable with that of ancient city of Hubuškia. Rabat Tape is located on the western bank of the Lower Zab River in northwestern Iran near the city of Sardasht. The location of the site and its archaeological characteristics, allows us to propose that Rabat Tape could be the same as the ancient city of Hubuškia.

Abstract The contractor of the gas line transition from Damghan to Neka destroyed and recovered two tombs in 2014. The site is located 80 km south of Sari. Archaeological excavations led to discovering two historical cemeteries, settlements, and an Islamic castle and cemetery. Architectural remains and objects indicate historical catacomb burials. There are questions about the site including the architectural structure of the catacombs, burial method and dating. Systematic survey and excavation and subsequent comparison of data, with burial method, suggest a vast Parthian settlement in the site. Vestemin is the first Parthian site in Mazandaran. What distinguishes the site from the other Parthian cemeteries is the family catacombs. The Vestemin catacombs consist of three parts, including 1) the rectangular space or the corridor, 2) threshold or entrance between the rectangular space and the catacomb chamber, 3) the catacomb chamber. Armaments including swords, daggers, arrowheads, trefoil arrowheads, and armor were among the findings of the cemetery. Varieties of the objects and using armaments as gifts, had nothing to the deceased’s gender. Investigating the types of armaments reveal how the cavalries applied them, because armaments such as swords, daggers, and arrowheads, are light weapons that Agile Parthian cavalries used against the romans’ heavy weapons, as their classic enemy

Abstract The Encircled Male Bust is one of the most mysterious symbols of ancient Iran and as yet, many researchers have commented on its identity and origin. However, the evidences have not been enough to achieve a certain, ultimate result. Some researchers relate the Encircled Bust to the pre-Achaemenid period and believe that its origin goes back to Assyrian art. On the other hand, there is the possibility that the Encircled Bust is a purely Iranian innovative motif (Median or Achaemenian). So far, there have been various hypotheses proposing that the Encircled bust could be Ahura-Mazda, the Moon God, Mithra, Xwarneh, or alive or dead king. Reviewing the history of the Encircled Bust and analyzing previous opinions, this research concludes that there are two candidates for the identification of this motif: 1. King, 2. a god other than Ahura-Mazda. In the first case, the most possible option is the dead king and in the second case the most possible case is the god of Mithra.

Abstract A study of dental elements can provide useful information about the diet and social, economic and biological status of the human population in the past. The nutritional status of the past human populations can be achieved by examining the portion of dental elements obtained. In this study, a total of 8 dental samples, four ancient samples (belonging to the Bronze Age) obtained from the site of Firouzeh Neyshabur and four other new samples (collected from the contemporary period) were retrieved from the Repair Clinics of the Mashhad Dentistry Faculty. To determine properties of the chemical structure of the enamel using the semi-quantitative analysis of elements by the Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis (EDX), the samples were sent to the Razi Metallurgical Laboratory of Tehran. Inhabitants of Shahrake Firouzeh,Site it could be posited that they mainly used vegetable and meat in their diet and seafood constituted part of their  dietary regime. Our result shows that the high levels of essential elements of teeth, such as calcium, phosphorus and fluorine, and the absence of any decay on enamels of dental samples derived from Shahrake Firouzeh demonstrate the relative dental health during that Bronze Age, which can be said to be the result of proper nutrition and access of people to resources of healthy drinking water in those areas.

Abstract Eastern Iran, especially in the prehistoric period, is a completely unknown region on the Iranian archaeological map. More than one hundred years after the beginning of archaeological excavations in Iran, the eastern regions have received little or no attention from archaeologists for various reasons, and there are very limited publications as well. Kale Kub is a prehistoric site that is located in Ayask town, in Sarayan District, South Khorasan Province, eastern Iran. It has sufficient cultural deposits to provide a chronological timeframe of cultural sequence for the prehistoric cultures of this region. The first season of Kale Kub excavations, carried out in 2019, led to the identification of unknown prehistoric cultures in the region, which are introduced in this article.        
Perhaps the most significant achievement of this excavation was the identification of the 4th millennium BCE cultures, which are well known in the southwest of Iran and Mesopotamia and for which evidence has been obtained far from the centre of this culture. These cultural evidences, which can be considered to belong to the Susa II horizon or late Uruk cultures, include the typical pottery of this period, such as bevelled rim bowls, rough Banesh trays, tubular and nose handle jars, and fine and painted wheel-made pottery, which is well known in the south-western, western, north-western, south-eastern regions and central plateau of Iran, but which have now been identified and introduced for the first time in eastern Iran. In general, based on the excavation of two stratigraphic trenches (A and B) in this site, three cultural periods have been identified so far. They have been classified from the bottom level and the top of the virgin soil are: 1: KALE KUB I (Chalcolithic period, fifth millennium BCE), 2: KALE KUB II (Susa II horizon, fourth millennium BCE), and 3: KALE KUB III (Bronze age, third and second millennia BCE).

Abstract One of the most ambiguous historical periods in Iran is Median Era so that the Median architecture has a lot of unknown aspects. Noshijan Hill in Malayer City is one of the foremost historical zones of Media where its main settlement includes a time period ranged from 750 to 650 BC. This zone has been explored by a British team headed by Dr. David Stronach; as a result, some of valuable constructions in this region were discovered so that to contribute extremely to identify Median Architecture. The discovery of buildings is greatly important because of their special sustainability and other unique characteristics. One of the architectural specifications of this region is its novel arch- construction that has not been already identified in any other area.
The mentioned archs had been constructed by application of sequenced rows of arch or mud waffle slabs. Each of these archs comprises of two semi- arches so their lower ends are placed on a support in longitudinal walls while their upper ends will place on the head of this arch. These waffle slabs were made from a fine mud and often reinforced by reed. After Median period and during Achaemenid and Arsacides Empires, this technique of arch- construction was also continued and followed by several methods up to later periods in Iranian traditionsal architecture

Abstract The city and province of Kerman has always been of special importance due to its many economic and commercial opportunities, in addition to which it has had a high political position for the Qajar rulers; For these reasons, the mint has been active for a long time until 1878 AD. It was established in this city that during the period of Naser al-Din Shah Qajar (1847-1895 AD) many silver qirans were written between the years 1848-1849, 1852-1855, 1860, 1863-1867, 1869-1871, 1873, 1875-1876, and 1878 AD. Had beaten. The coinage system of the Naseri period, although nominally following the system of Tehran, but in practice each city had an autonomous military and the coins of most cities were minted with different amounts of silver purity. These issues raise two questions for the Kerman Mint: 1- What is the purity of the main elements (silver, copper, iron, gold, and lead) of the coins minted in Kerman and how has it changed? 2- What is the purity of silver coins of Kerman city, in the position of important economic city, in comparison with other important cities of Iran, such as Mashhad, Tabriz, Tehran, Isfahan, and Shiraz? Therefore, in order to answer these questions, elemental analysis of coins of this period using PIXE method due to its non-destructiveness, speed and high accuracy, became the main basis of this research. In this study, 23 coins in 19 different dates and 4 coins were analyzed to measure the validity of the results and analyzes, which resulted in a trend of changes in the purity of silver on average in three time periods between 1848-1855 AD. He explained 90.09%, 1860-1871 AD 86.53%, 1873-1878 AD 84.17%, and in the whole multiplication period 87.16%, and its position in terms of the purity of silver in front of Mashhad mints (84%), Tabriz (82%), Tehran (90%), Isfahan (84%), and Shiraz (90%). Also, valuable information was obtained on the type of silver mines used, namely the Cerussite mines and how the coins were minted with copper and iron metals.

Abstract After more than one hundred years from the beginning of archaeological studies in Iran, the eastern regions of the country have received scarce or no attention from archaeologists, and there are very limited publications resulting from archaeological activities in this part of Iran. The prehistoric site of Kale Kub Ayask is one of the few prehistoric sites of South Khorasan province, and indeed in the whole eastern Iran, containing sufficient cultural deposits to provide a reliable chronology of the prehistoric cultural sequence of this region. Excavations at the site have led to the identification of the unknown prehistoric cultures in the area. The most significant achievement of the excavation is the identification of cultural materials dating to the fourth millennium BCE with southwestern and Mesopotamian origins. This cultural evidence, which can be considered as horizons of the culture of Susa II or the Late Uruk period, includes the typical pottery types of this period, such as beveled rim bowls, coarse Banesh trays, tubular vessels, nose-handled jars, patterned, and fine wheel pottery. This evidence has been long known in the southwestern, western, northwestern, southeastern, and central plateaus of Iran, but this is the first time they have been identified in eastern Iran. Based on geophysical studies, pristine places were selected to survey during the second season of excavation at the Kale Kub site, and the excavation of trenches with wider dimensions has lead to the identification of the prehistoric architecture of the site

Abstract During this survey 29 sites have been recognized totally. Settlement patterns determined base of environmental characteristics such as altitude, ground slope, source of water, petrology and geology, vegetations, land use and specifications of sites including width, chronology, regional distribution and density and all of them have been divided by using geographic information systems (GIS) and cluster analysis in five clusters including I, II, III, IV and V.
On the basis of the collected data, effective reasons for development of permanent settlements in plain are: variant slope from higher part to lower surrounded plain in hillsides, high density sediments in adjacent mountains, and influence of seasonal network in northwest of the region as well as low height valley. Moreover the reasons of increasing the number of pastoral sites in pastures are: higher altitude and unsuitable agricultural grounds and shallow extended sites in every parts of region

Abstract The Iranian Plateau and its residents can be enumerated as one of the pioneers in progress of technology, science and knowledge in the ancient world. The development of metallurgy on the Iranian Plateau has been a topic of interest to both archaeologists and scientists for many years because of the remarkable history of the metallurgical activities in this region and concerned the wide variety of the technologies, compositions, innovations, etc. (Figure 1). Results of many investigations in metallurgy of ancient Iranian Plateau show usage of copper and its alloys in different periods of Iran history from prehistoric to Islamic era. In this paper, formation, evolutions and developments occurred in metallurgy of copper alloys have reviewed and in prehistoric period of Iran (7000-500 BC) based on archaeological and archaeometallurgical investigations. The results of analytical and archaeological studies state the first metal used in prehistory of Iranian Plateau has been copper. It is apparent that the Iranian Plateau has a significant history in the metallurgy of copper and its alloys in the prehistoric period. It has begun in the Neolithic period and during 4000 years has transformed from forming objects by hammering native copper to extensive smelting of oxidic and sulphidic ores in Chalcolithic era. The ancient metalworkers used native copper to manufacture small decorative objects, as it was observed in Ali Kosh Neolithic site (Figure 2). It was developed by shaping native copper to produce small functional objects such as objects discovered from late Neolithic sites (Figure 2). It was continued by melting native copper to cast objects. Furthermore, metallurgical processes were extended by smelting copper oxidic ores in crucibles during 5^th and 4^th millennium BC. In fact, the chalcolithic period (ca. 4500-3000 BC) is the period of emergence and development of smelting of oxidic and then sulphidic copper ores in small scale. There are numerous evidences of copper smelting in the chalcolithic archaeological sites such as Qabristan, Tal-i Iblis, etc. showing the crucible smelting technology in different regions of the Iranian Plateau (Figure 3). This technology was developed by large-scale smelting of copper ores, as it was discovered in Arisman, near Kashan. Of course, the metallurgical technologies during the late chalcolithic period (ca. 3500-3000 BC), is a mixture of crucible smelting and furnace smelting (Figure 4). It is worth noting that the main metallic composition in the Chalcolithic period is arsenical copper that may has been produced accidentally by smelting As-bearing copper ores leading to obtain metallic copper with significant amounts of arsenic (Figure 5). Nevertheless, some evidences of intentional arsenical copper production have been found during late Chalcolithic and early Bronze Age archaeological sites, such as Arisman.
The third millennium BC was occurred with occurrence of a new alloy, tin bronze. Early evidences of this technology was observed in western Iran, Luristan at the beginning of the third millennium BC. Some tin bronze objects with significant amounts of tin were detected among copper and arsenical copper objects discovered from Early Bronze Age graveyards such as Kalleh Nisar and Bani Surmeh (Figure 6). Although, early evidences of tin bronze metallurgy have been occurred in the third millennium BC but this technology was limited for about 1000 years in western and south-western Iran. Results of analytical studies revealed that the main copper base metallurgy has been copper and arsenical copper in other regions of the Iranian Plateau during the third millennium BC. Tin bronze was emerged in central Iran during the middle and late Bronze Age (ca. 2500-1500 BC) such as evidences from Malyan (Fars). Therefore, no evidence of tin bronze has been observed in eastern Iran, even at the mid of the second millennium BC. Although tin bronze was occurred during the early Bronze Age and was spread during middle and late Bronze Age in western and central Iran, but it was the main copper-based alloy during the Iron Age of the Iranian Plateau (ca. 1500-550 BC). Results of analytical investigations states that tin bronze has been the main material in production of metallic objects at the whole of the Iranian Plateau. The ritual objects from Iron Age graveyards of western, northern and central Iran show application of tin bronze to produce these objects. The large scale tin bronze production is the Iron Age of Iran is an interesting aspect, as this alloy has been observed in different archaeological sites such as Hasanlu and Marlik (Figure 7). One of the important collections form this category are the Luristan Bronzes, the enigmatic and extraordinary metallic objects that were produced in high-quality craftsmanship and were placed in graves and sanctuaries as ritual objects (Figure 8). The results of chemical analysis on the Luristan Bronzes, as well as other tin bronze objects from Iran, shows that thy may have been produced by uncontrolled alloying methods. In fact, controlling tin content has not been an important case for ancient metalworkers during the Iron Age (and also the Bronze Age). Also, no correlation between tin content and object’s typology is visible in the tin bronze objects from prehistoric Iran, that is in contrast with accent cuneiform texts from Mesopotamia. It may show that tin bronze metallurgy in the Iranian Plateau may has not been in connection with the Mesopotamian technology. Although, evidences of copper-zinc objects have been observed among the other copper based artefacts from second and first millennium BC, but it can’t be stated that this material has been used as a deliberately produced metallurgical product. It is more probable that these limited examples of copper-zinc objects (probably brass) were produced by smelting Zn-bearing copper ores. Nevertheless, evidences of low-zinc objects from Tappeh Yahya (southern Iran) and Luristan shows occurrence of early brasses (probable accidentally) during the prehistoric Iran.
Results of numerous analytical studies on the prehistoric copper base metallurgy during the last decades revealed interesting aspects of this technology from about 8000 BC. It has been started by using native copper and then developed by smelting oxidic and sulphidic copper in crucibles during the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods. Large scale smelting sites also were occurred during the late chalcolithic and early Bronze Age. Furthermore, application of different copper alloys such as arsenical copper, tin bronze and brass from Chalcolithic to Iron Age are important developments in archaeometallurgy in Iran. Totally, process of formation and development of copper metallurgy in prehistoric Iran has been introduced and revised based on technical and archaeological finds belonging a period about 6500 years (Figure 9).

Abstract Tomb sites, due to the prominent construction features, execution methods and decorative elements, account for an important part of the Iranian architectural patterns in the Islamic period in the group of burial buildings. Regarding to the fundamental importance of these sites, from a scientific point of view, research in various dimensions of their formation and emergence and comprehensive study is of great importance. One of the most important structural issues of tomb sites is determining the exact date of construction and developments that have affected their structures over time. The complex of Sheikh Ahmad-e Jam, in the city of Torbat-e Jam, which was founded by the will or to advance the governmental and political goals of one of the Khorasan mystics in the fifth and sixth centuries AH, is among the magnificent works of Iranian architecture and one of the most valuable historical sites in Iran. This complex have reflected a full image of Iranian-Islamic art and over time, has been one of the major centers of mysticism and Sufism in eastern Iran and the land of Khorasan. Despite this position and importance, many architectural features and decorative arts in this complex are still unknown and neglected.Among the buildings in the complex of Sheikh Ahmad Jam’s tomb, the dome chamber or solitary room (a place for worship), besides having a mystical and spiritual virtue for his children and grandchildren, one of the most important features of this building is the existence of a unique credential-narrative inscription of Al-Kart kings of Herat and a figure named "Gheymus" in it, and on the other hand, the focus of decorative patterns in the form of murals, inscriptions and paintings in various designs, has doubled the importance of the dome chamber of Jam’s tomb. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate and explain the architectural components and elements of this building by examining the concept and semantics of their array patterns. This research was conducted with the ultimate goal of obtaining answers to following questions. (1) Is the building of the dome chamber the same plain monastery of Sheikh Ahmad Jam, which was renovated by Sultan Sanjar after his death? (2) What justifies the existence of inscriptions and decorative elements in the interior space and their special concept and meaning? (3) Were the inscriptions and images written and drawn at the same period of time? However, in order to scientifically answer these questions, the research method and data collection of this study are based on documents and records, field studies and of laboratory tests and its approach is descriptive, comparative and interpretive analysis.

Abstract Tepe "Chay" (1181 m asl) is a small site with an area of less than one hectare in and a height of 1 meter above the surrounding fertile lands, which is located 2.5 km southwest of Dizajdiz town and 10 km southeast of Khoy. The first season of excavation at the site was carried out in July and August of 2021 in order to delimit the site, to ascertain its exact extent as well as conduct soundings of the stratigraphy of the site to better understand its phasing, periodization and chronology. In this regard, nine test trenches were excavated in different parts of the site; of these, only three test trenches were located within the site’s limits and the rest were off-site. Based on the delimiting soundings the exact extent of the site was 7468 square meters. A stratigraphic trench (TR.10) was also excavated in the southwestern part of Tepe Chay and in total, 7.4 m of architectural, layers and cultural deposits were identified; virgin soil was reached at a depth of 8 meters. According to the typology of pottery obtained from the layers and their comparison with other sites of northwestern Iran, the a relative chronology of the site consists of four settlement phases belonging to 1) the Early Chalcolithic (Dalma culture) (Tepe Chay I); 2) Late Chalcolithic 1 (Pisdeli) (Tepe Chay II); 3) Late Chalcolithic 2 (Chaff-Faced Ware) (Tepe Chay III); and 4) Late Chalcolithic 3 (Chaff-Tempered with comb-design and perforated manqals). Futhermore a Kura-Araxes I (Tepe Chay IV) component is suggested for the sequence of the site. During the excavation, no cultural interruption or gap was observed between Late Chalcolithic and Kura-Araxes layers, and the evidence indicates a continuity and transition between these two periods. It is therefore possible that the Kura-Araxesian, like the Kul Tepe Hadishahr, originates from Late Chalcolithic society of Tepe Chay. Therefore, according to the results of the excavations of Tepe Chay as well as the excavations of Kul Tepe, Dozdaghi Khoy, Tepe Gijlar and Geoy Tepe, perhaps northwestern Iran can be introduced as one of the core centers for the formation of early stages of the Kura-Araxes culture. Evidence from the excavation also suggests a function of trade with neighboring areas, especially the prehistoric obsidian and salt trade for Tepe Chay.

Abstract The archaeological site of Mafin Abad, located in the central part of Islamshahr city and 3 Km to the south of Mafin Abad village, was excavated under the supervision of Ahmad Chaychi Amirkhiz in two seasons in 2005 and 2006 (Maps 1-2). Moreover, they have dug some trenches around the site for environmental sedimentology. Findings concerning prehistoric pottery in Mafin Abad are contemporary with cultural periods of Sialk II to Sialk III_4-5. However, a few pieces of pottery belonging to Sialk III_6-7b are found as well. Sedimentological data shows that a layer of dense sedimentary soil, on a grey and black layer, is covered by Sialk III_4-5 pottery, which suggests flood events of an ancient river near the site. Mafin Abad had probably changed to a basin catchment for a relatively long time. Paleoclimate studies show that despite the overall optimum climatic conditions during the Mid-Holocene in the westerly-dominated regions in West Asia, this period is punctuated by episodic dry spells, particularly during the fourth millennium BC. Such abrupt climate variability has probably been accompanied by extreme weather events, such as severe droughts and torrential rains which have potentially led to river overflows and massive floodings in the plains and alluvial fans. Detachments in habitats of the Tehran Plain in the late Sialk III_4-5 period and the reduction of settlements in Sialk III_6-7b and Sialk IV periods, and then, the cultural decline of the Bronze Age in North Central Iran, may be associated with the climate changes during the latter half of the Mid-Holocene.
Due to its special geographical location, the effect of the air circulation system, subtropical high pressure, and other factors, Iran generally has a semi-arid to the arid climate and a semi-desert to desert nature. The cultural region of North Central Iran overlaps with two large basins of the Salt Lake and the western part of the Central Desert. Most of the prehistoric sites belong to the Salt Lake basin. In this part, several sub-basins are resulting from the permanent rivers of Jajroud, Karaj, Qarachay, and Qomroud. The mentioned rivers and their branches have formed the main pattern of human settlements since the Neolithic period in the cultural region, because these human societies needed sufficient water resources for permanent settlement and agriculture and animal husbandry, as well as industrial activities and, finally, the formation of government and civilization. Climatic changes have had devastating environmental effects, disrupting the development and cultural transformation of ancient societies; Severe hurricanes, heavy rainfall, severe prolonged droughts, heat waves, and cold spells are some of the outcomes of climate change. Climate change in arid and vulnerable regions such as North Central Iran has had dire consequences for water-based human communities.
The archaeological site of Mafin Abad, located in the central part of Islamshahr city and 3 km to the south of Mafin Abad village, was excavated under the supervision of Ahmad Chaychi Amirkhiz in 2005 and 2006. Prehistoric pottery found from the layers of Tepe Mafin Abad was contemporary with cultural periods of Sialk II to Sialk III_4-5. Also, a few pieces of pottery belonging to Sialk III_6-7b were found on the surface. it is worth mentioning that the area of this site at the time of the excavations was 5.5 hectares, which was one of the largest settlements in North Central Iran in the Chalcolithic Age. During the excavations, six trenches were also excavated for environmental sedimentology around Tepe Mafin Abad called A to F. The A to C trenches were dug in the western part of the hill, side by side, along the northwest, at a distance of approximately 10 meters from each other. Also, Trench D was excavated in the southwest, Trench E in the south, and Trench F in the southeast of the site. The main question of this study was about how the environmental changes in this area in the chalcolithic period. We also sought to answer the questions of whether climatic events and natural hazards contributed to the decline of the prehistoric cultures of North Central Iran? What were the climatic conditions of the Chalcolithic Age (4200-3000 BC) like?
This research is based on environmental sedimentology studies of the prehistoric site of Mafin Abad, Islamshahr (Figurs. 1-2). The stratigraphic report of each of the excavated sedimentary trenches along with the features and contents of each layer are presented in full. Also, to analyze the findings, archaeological information of the Chalcolithic Age of North Central Iran and paleoclimate research of Greenland (GISP2), Iran, and neighboring regions have been examined. The Middle Holocene covers approximately 8200 to 4200 years ago. This period in the cultural region of North Central Iran includes the cultural periods of Sialk I, II, III, and IV. Although in the first half of the Middle Holocene, in general, warm climatic conditions (in different areas with a decrease or increase in humidity) prevailed, but from about the beginning of the fourth millennium to the second half of the third millennium BC, frequently, abrupt climate change has occurred, causing severe droughts or torrential rains in various regions. Flood-based sedimentary strata in the ancient cities of Ur, Shurupak, and Kish in Mesopotamia from the mid-fourth millennium BC to the early third millennium BC may indicate the occurrence of climatic hazards associated with climate change. This evidence has been obtained from the C and D sedimentological trenches of Mafin Abad site belonging to the mid-fourth millennium BC. Paleoclimate research in Lake Maharlou in Fars province shows a very dry period between 3700 to 3500 BC. Studies of Lake Neor in Ardebil province determine a significant increase in drought and dust flux during the fourth millennium BC. Proxies of Lake Kongor in the Gorgan plain show the dry conditions from about 3700 BC to the end of the fourth millennium BC. The results of research in Katalekhor Cave in Zanjan indicate the existence of dry conditions in the early and late centuries of the fourth millennium BC. Also, high-resolution paleoclimate research of Soreq Cave shows the very dry climatic conditions between 3700 and 3600 BC (Figur. 3).In the archaeological studies of North Central Iran, it is clear from the datings of most sites, except for a few, that habitation in them lasted until the late Sialk III_4-5 and the early Sialk III_6-7b, and other sites, since the Sialk III_6-7b are set up. In sites that, according to the systematic survey, have pottery of all layers of Sialk III, it is impossible to assume with complete certainty the continuity without interruption of dwelling.
 According to sedimentological studies, in Trench D, a thick, dense layer of sediment (3.5 m thick) covered a layer of gray soil with Sialk III4-5 pottery, which probably indicates the flooding of an ancient river near this site (Figurs. 1-2). Paleoclimate studies show that despite the overall optimum climatic conditions during the Mid-Holocene in the westerly-dominated regions in West Asia, this period is punctuated by episodic dry spells, particularly during the fourth millennium BC. Such abrupt climate variability has probably been accompanied by extreme weather events, such as severe droughts and torrential rains which have potentially led to rivers overflowing and sink the plains and alluvial fans. The settlement gap in the Chalcolithic villages of the Tehran Plain in the late Sialk III4-5 period and the decreasing trend of settlements in Sialk III6-7b and Sialk IV periods, and then, the cultural decline of the Bronze Age in North Central Iran may have been related with the climate changes during the second half of the Mid-Holocene. It is worth noting, according to archaeological studies in Alborz and Qazvin provinces, the number of bronze and iron age settlements in these areas is more than Tehran plain. So we can say that probably the abrupt climate change of the late Middle Holocene has changed the pattern and spatial distribution of settlements in the western part of the cultural region of North Central Iran, and shifted the settlement from arid to semi-arid areas and more favorable climates.
Environmental sedimentology in archaeological sites can acquaint us with natural events and climate change in antiquity. The results of these studies can also be effective in understanding the causes of cultural changes in prehistoric societies. This study identifies the climatic conditions of the fourth millennium BC and the dry climatic events of the Chalcolithic era and reveals the destructive effects of natural hazards associated with climate change. So far, no research has been conducted with the approach of studying climatic events in the decline of Sialk III culture in North Central Iran.

Abstract The most important characteristics of the occupants of the second millennium BC in northern Iran and its adjacent regions such as the provinces of East Azerbaijan, Ardabil, Azerbaijan Republic, Armenia and southern Russia, is the settlements containing castles with defense walls and huge stone graves as well using bronze artifacts and production of gray and buff polished pottery. The presence of a large number of Kurgan graves distributed on the wider areas of East Azerbaijan to southern Russia which often lack residential areas, have been the fundamental problems concerning architectural patterns of their culture. In this paper it is attempted through comparative study to represent the main features of the second millennium BC in Eastern Azerbaijan on the basis of zard khaneh excavation and nearby regions.    

Abstract Sasanians created more than thirty rock reliefs during their reign, most of which are loacated in their homeland of Pars. The study of Sasanian monumental rock reliefs has a long tradition and these fascinating monuments have been subject of scrutiny from many different perspectives. Nevertheless, one major issue still remains relatively unattended: how did these reliefs appear to ancient viewers? This broad question can be considered from at least two different angles: firstly, the relationship between the reliefs and their built and natural environment and secondly the original appearance of the reliefs, which now appear as grey rocky surfaces to us, when they were created and during their time of splendor. While the issue of polychromy in the Achaemenid rock art and architecture has been subject of intensive studies, apart from few brief references, this subject has not attracted much attention among scholars of Sasanian art and archaeology. Were these monuments decorated with color in their original form? If so, what colors were most commonly used? Can we reconstruct the colorful appearance of these reliefs? While empirical evidence of coloring has not been thoroughly documented on Sasanian reliefs yet, examination of several literary evidence as well as application of polychromy in other forms of Sasanian art, such as wall paintings, textiles, mosaics and stucco decorations can provide valuable indirect data on the subject and elucidate the Sasanian palette. Based on a such variety of evidence, as well as the long tradition of polychromy in ancient Iran at least from the Neo-Elamite period up to the Qajar era, it seems fairly rational that Sasanian rock reliefs were indeed colorful images standing out against their rocky background. Considering the close relation between three domains of wall painting, stucco decorating and rock reliefs, colorful appearance of Sasanian rock reliefs can be reasonably reconstructed

Abstract In the last century, a group of Bronze Age composite stone female figurines, known as “Bactrian princesses”, appeared in the antique market, and were suspected to come from Afghanistan. Later, during scientific archaeological excavations, similar female figurines were discovered in southern Turkmenistan and northeastern Iran, corresponding to the Late Namazga V period. There are many discussions about the origin of this composite stone female figurine. Traditionally, it is believed that they have clear Elamite elements and were influenced by the culture of the southern Iranian plateau. From the Neolithic to the Bronze Age in Central Asia, archaeological remains show close connections with the populations on the Iranian plateau. Clay female statues were used both in Central Asia and Iran for a long time, and based on them, statue tradition with local cultural characteristics was relatively independently developed. The new composite stone female statues in Namazga V were different from the early Central Asia traditions, which were made of clay and in a schematized shape. The decorations on the surface of these composite stone figurines have a great similarity with the images of elites from the Old Elamite Dynasty. Also, the stone materials, mainly chlorites and marbles, can be traced to southeastern Iran. The appearance of these composite stone figurines shows a change that happened in Southern Central Asia society, corresponding to the transition that people moved from Kopet Dag Piedmont to the Murghab Delta. The integration of Central Asian local culture and Iranian culture was ideologically reflected in these figurines.

Abstract Abstract
The Median Kingdom was a significant and influential period in the political and cultural history of Iran. Despite this, unfortunately, there is limited historical and archaeological data available, and there are fundamental ambiguities regarding various aspects of its existence, including historical geography and archaeological. One of the major challenges is the type of structure and geographical extent of the Median Kingdom. Did the Medes establish a great kingdom and settle in the conquered regions, particularly in the former territory of Assyria, spreading their cultural traditions in the area and leaving behind legacies? Or was their presence temporary and merely political and military? This research, relying on historical and archaeological sources and examining unpublished documents from the Iraqi Ministry of Antiquities, explores the presence of the Medes in the central regions of Mesopotamia, using analytical-historical methods and descriptive-analytical methods to provide evidence and documents that demonstrate the presence of the Medes in the areas discussed. According to Babylonian sources, the Medes not only had a strong military presence in northeastern Iraq and northern Syria, but they also appeared in the central regions of Mesopotamia and posed security threats to Babylon, to the extent that Babylon prepared extensive defensive fortifications to protect its northern borders and its capital. Archaeological data indicates that the presence of the Medes in northern and central Mesopotamia was accompanied by settlements and artifacts, the remnants of which have been identified in the regions of Erbil, Sulaymaniyah, Rania, and Diyala. Among these, the mound of Gubba in the Diyala region is particularly significant due to its location in the southern areas near the borders of Babylon and its distinctive architecture and cultural materials. Despite the second-level designation of this site being attributed to the Achaemenid period, research data indicates that this settlement was established after the fall of Assyria, featuring different styles and materials, with modifications occurring during the Achaemenid period. The findings of this research, while confirming the attribution of this settlement and its cultural traditions to the Medes, demonstrate the presence and expansion of the Median Kingdom in the central regions of Mesopotamia.
Keywords: Medes Kingdom, Medean Archaeology, Tell Gubba, Medean Architecture, Tell al-Dim.
 
1. Introduction
The Median kingdom represents an important and influential period in the political and cultural history of Iran. Despite this, the historical and archaeological data are minimal, and there are fundamental ambiguities regarding various aspects of this kingdom. One significant challenge is the structure and political extent of the Medes, especially in the period following the fall of Assyria. A review of Babylonian texts, as well as data uncovered from the site of Gubba in the Hamrin region of Iraq, provides a new perspective on the geographical expansion and power of the Median kingdom and can create a suitable context for understanding the relations between the Medes and Babylonia in the mid-sixth century BCE, the role of the Medes in the fall of Babylon, and the presence of Median architectural traditions and cultural materials in the Mesopotamia. In light of this importance, the current research has been conducted. The research methodology incorporates historical-analytical data in the historical section and descriptive-analytical data in the archaeological section, with data collection tools being library resources and, to a limited extent, fieldwork.
 
2. Research Background  
There has not been significant research conducted regarding the expansion and presence of the Medes in northeastern and central Iraq. On the other hand, due to the lack of focus on this specific historical period, the relatively brief existence of the Median kingdom in these areas, and the political confrontation of the former regime of Iraq towards this historical period, which consciously disregards it, and attributes several specific Median Settlement remains to the Achaemenid period, the available data is limited. The Hamrin region was first investigated by the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (Adams, 1965). In 1977, in connection with regional studies for the construction of the Diyala Dam, a Japanese archaeological team led by Hideo Fujii excavated the Tell Gubba site and published the results in 1981 (Fujiii, 1981). Unfortunately, the architectural data and the artifacts discovered from the second layer of the site have not been fully published. In Iran, Michael Roof was the first to mention the Median identity of this site (Roaf, 2008). Since then, despite a brief reference, no focused research on this topic has been conducted.
 
3. The presence of the Medes in central Iraq  
The presence of the Medes in Iraq is confirmed at least through historical sources and limited archaeological evidence.
3-1. Study of Babylonian Sources
Unfortunately, Babylonian sources provide very little information from the fall of Assyria to the rise of Cyrus the Achaemenid (Jursa, 2003: 169-171). It seems that after the fall of Assyria, contrary to the expectations of the king of Babylon, the Medes remained in significant parts of the territory taken from Assyria and later expanded their domain into the central regions of Mesopotamia to the detriment of Babylon (Weisshauser and Novotny, 2020: 152-153 and 187). Babylonian sources reference the presence of the Medes in central regions. The first reference pertains to the annals of Nabonidus, which mention the attack of the Gutians on the temple of the goddess Anunitu in Sippar-Anunitu and its plundering (Weiershäuser and Novotny, 2020: 64). The next reference relates to the construction of fortifications and defensive walls between the two rivers, Tigris and Euphrates, to counter the Medes (Novotny and Weiershäuser, 2024: 129 and 130). The account in Babylonian sources regarding the fall of the Median kingdom to Cyrus also indirectly suggests Babylon’s animosity towards the Medes (ibid: 147 and 152-153). Babylonian inscriptions on the fall and capture of Babylon also illustrate the significant role and presence of the Medes (Weiershäuser and Novotny, 2020: 26-27).
3-2. Study of Archaeological Data: Tell Gubba  
Tell Gubba is located in Diyala Province, Iraq, 5 kilometers upstream from the confluence of the Diyala and Narin rivers, and 12 kilometers west of the city of Saadiya (Fig. 1). The dimensions of the site are 80 × 85 meters, with a height reaching 8 meters (Fig. 3). Excavations at this site have revealed 7 layers of settlement, with the second layer being the focus of this research (Fuji, 1981: 141).  
The second settlement level of Tell Gubba has been formed by leveling the area and creating a platform-like foundation (ibid: 150-151). Excavations of Layer II uncovered a large, solid brick structure with a nearly square plan consisting of rectangular interior rooms and an enclosing wall, constructed with mud bricks measuring 47 × 25 × 10 centimeters and mud mortar (Fig. 4).  
The central building, measuring 16 meters in length and 15.5 meters in width, has surrounding walls approximately 2.5 meters thick. The structure features an entrance that provides access to a corridor and three elongated, narrow spaces. The floors of all rooms were covered with a thick layer of gravel, and the walls were coated with clay plaster. The ceiling condition of the rooms is unclear; however, arched ceilings are the most probable option (ibid: 151). Given the thickness of the walls and the internal layout, which primarily served functional purposes, there may be a second floor. The eastern and northern façades of the building, which have better preservation, were constructed with buttresses and recesses, featuring arrow slits about 20 centimeters wide (ibid). The angular buttresses of the building are interconnected and take on a tower-like appearance, distinguishing them from examples at Tepe Nush-I Jan and Ulug Depe, while showing closer affinities to those at Tell al-Dim Raniya and Achaemenid specimens.  
Surrounding the central building, at a distance of 5 meters, there is a wall 3 meters thick and measuring 32 × 32 meters overall, which has been constructed similarly to the central structure (ibid: 150-151). A 5-meter-wide corridor existed between the wall and the central building, comparable to the uncovered structure at Ulug Depe.  
In front of the entrance to the wall, a brick structure resembling a platform has been identified, which protrudes from the main building. In a subsequent period, a wall was erected in front of it for reinforcement, built with mud bricks measuring 33 × 33 × 10 centimeters. The orientation and varying mud brick sizes of the wall suggest a possible Achaemenid affiliation.
3-2-1. Pottery and Discovered Objects  
Unfortunately, the discovered cultural materials have not been fully published. This study aimed to extract and present the maximum available information by referring to excavation documents from archaeological centers in Iraq. Based on published sources and examined documents, a significant number of pottery (Figs. 5,7) different from Assyrian and Achaemenid types, twelve iron and bronze objects (Fig. 8), several figurines and clay seals (Fig. 9), two stone stamped seals, several stone tools and beads (Fig. 10), and several bone spatulas (Fig. 11) were obtained from the second level.
 
4. Conclusion  
Despite Babylonian attempts to ignore the Median kingdom, there is evidence of a powerful Median presence in Mesopotamia, as well as tensions and military conflicts with Babylon. The inability of the Babylonians to expel the Medes from the region is indirectly reflected in Babylonian inscriptions, and the construction of strong and extensive defensive installations by the Babylonians serves as further evidence of this claim. In such circumstances, it is natural that the Medes would also have established settlements there. Tell Gubba, with its unique location, could be one of these settlements. The architectural features of the second level of the site link it to the Median architecture of the Iranian plateau. Contrary to the dating proposed by Fujii, evidence suggests that only part of the annexes, including the surrounding wall of the terrace, which was constructed using standardized Achaemenid mud bricks, pertains to the Achaemenid period, while the original settlement likely belongs to the final decades of the Median kingdom (580 to 550 BC). Unfortunately, no significant cultural artifacts have been recovered from the original settlement, and what has been found appears to relate to a secondary occupation that developed after the central building was abandoned and perhaps after a fire. The cultural materials recovered, along with the architectural similarities, confirm the Median nature of the settlement. Additional supportive evidence obtained from Tell al-Dim in Raniya (Hassan al-Takrity, 1960), as well as the tomb of Qizqapan in the Sulaymaniyah region, indicates that the Medes had a long-term presence in the area and had partially replaced Assyrian architectural and cultural traditions with their own.

Abstract For several centuries (9th to 14th AD), Sgraffito-type pottery was widely distributed across a vast region, including Iran, the Caucasus, Anatolia, Eastern Europe, and Transoxiana. Based on the typological studies of Grube and Allen, this pottery tradition is classified into five main groups—Simple Sgraffito, Splashed Glazed Sgraffito, Champlevé/Garrus, Agh Kand, and Amol—each named after geographic locations in Iran where examples were first identified. Despite this established classification, our knowledge of the actual production contexts—workshops, kilns, tools, and technological processes—remained speculative, relying mainly on unverified accounts from antique dealers. No systematic archaeological investigations of production sites had previously been undertaken. These gaps raise significant research questions: How did Sgraffito pottery technology develop over a span of five centuries? Which styles represent earlier phases, and which embody the latest technical innovations? To address these questions, I initiated fieldwork in 2015 in the southern part of northwest Iran, a region historically rich in ceramic traditions. Surveys identified more than 20 sites containing substantial Sgraffito pottery remains. Among them, the site of Aghche Rish was selected for excavation, marking the first archaeological project in Iran devoted specifically to uncovering Sgraffito pottery production workshops. Excavations revealed a complex dating from the 9th to 14th centuries AD. Finds included multiple pottery kilns, extensive quantities of Garrus and Agh Kand wares , residential structures, workshop buildings, kiln-support tools such as bars and tripods, glass bracelets, 10th-century coins, tombs, and a historical cemetery. The presence of both domestic and industrial features provides valuable insight into the organization of pottery production and the daily lives of the craftspeople. This article first examines the workshop activities at Aghche Rish, offering rare archaeological evidence of Sgraffito production in Iran, and then presents a detailed typological analysis of the pottery assemblage, contributing to a deeper understanding of its technological and chronological development.

Abstract Jundishapur is one of the towns with a rectangular plan, built by Shapur I in the north of the Kuzistan close to the Mansor River and like Bishapur, on one side is limited to the river, but here there is no fort and castle to protect the city. Archaeological studies in Jundishapur were carried out by mapping and aerial photography and systematic archaeological examination and a total of forty one point of occupation were identified. The abstract results of the index samples along with written sources made it clear that the establishment has continued throughout Christian centuries. The water flowed in the city from the Mansoor black harbor through the Jundishapur Bridge. Due to the decrease in water in the summer, a qanat was built in 14 km length from the Dez River to adjust and increase the water level of the Jundishapur River representing the efforts of Sasanians in the water supply system.

Abstract Human- environment interaction is among the subject matters explored by human ecology with the help of natural sciences based on anthropological and archaeological perspectives in an eclectic fashion. The present paper offers exploring the framework and concepts used in ecology, the terminology pertaining to and geographical boundaries of Central Plateau of Iran and its northern part will be discussed. After reviewing the ecological features of the region, variables determining the adaptive process of the settlements with the natural environment in ancient and recent time - especially the village period- will be assessed. Identifying adaptive strategies and behaviors and technologies involved therein form the base of the human ecological approach and its subject matter. This approach has previously been applied in especially in western Iran. But in other parts of the country, archaeological research has rarly progressed beyond description of sites, introduction of finds and rudimentary explanation of cultural change. The distinct ecological features of the Central Plateau of Iran and its internal variation on one hand, and a series of recent archaeological field projects in the region on the other, demands a fresh look of the region from ecological point of view and utilizing new finds in assessing enduring archaeological questions.

Abstract Tappeh Bazgir is located 76km northeast of Torang Tappeh at the eastern fringes of the Gorgan plain. The metal hoard was discovered in 2001 and excavated in 2010. The hoard is composed of a diverse assemblage and date back to the Late Bronze Age / Hissar IIIC). We investigated six artifacts for studies using different methods such as metallographic studies, SEM-EDS, XRD, and some chemical analyses in order to better understand the composition, the manufacturing techniques utilized, the corrosion products, and impact of the long term burial on the stability of artifacts. The artifacts are of arsenical copper composition and have been manufactured by casting. The composition of the artifacts and the nature of their burial environment have affected the composition and structure of patina formed on the objects. The compositions of the surrounding soil, the positional arrangement of the objects, and the environmental conditions have decreased the rate of corrosion on the artifacts despite the long term burial time. These have consequently caused a rather good physical condition of the metal objects.

Abstract The handmade subterranean architectural structure is a special kind of architecture that is in its creation does not require any construction materials but it needs many efforts and hard working to be produced The different types of this kind are visible in the different parts of Iran. A unique collection of this type of architecture is the troglodytic architectural complex of Samen, located about 90 km from the south of Hamadan, 15 km from the south west of Malayer. Accessibility to this complex has been possible first in 2006. This site is composed of about 50 troglodytic architectural spaces in different sizes including corridors, halls and rooms. Four successive research programs (identification, documentation, clearing and archeological excavations) were carried out on this complex from 2008 to 2011 conducted by one of us; Ali Khaksar. Field study of this complex brought to light not only the unknown characteristics of such subterranean architecture but resulted in to discover about 60 human bone fragments. Our comparative analysis on the materials found from the site as well as on the human bone fragments led to conclude the site has been in use during the Parthian period.

Abstract The archaeological record is an insufficiently defined concept. The concept is used by archaeologists as a model for their evidence. As a model, it brings metaphysical implications to archaeological theory. Some of the implications of the concept of the archaeological record show that there are actually two different models of archaeological evidence as a record: physical model and textual model. Different conceptions of the archaeological record disagree more fundamentally on the formation processes that have produced the record.