Journal of Archaeological Studies

Abstract   Kurdistan Province is located in western Iran and its geographical position as a corridor has always been routs of attacks by western invaders from the most ancient times including Assyrians. So, Inhabitants of this region to protection against enemies have created defensive fortification structure by which they could protect themselves. Studying and evaluating these habitats can help us to achieve their spatial-physical and social organization features. One of these example is Hasan Abad Dej-Shahr that is located 5 Km from west of Sanandaj city. Use of this complex after Il-khanid (Mongol) assaulting by Ardalan local governors is an important point that should be considered. This paper has been trying to dealing with its geographical situation, locational characteristics, forming, its architectural and urbanism structure, function and its importance in region. By the way, the research question raised by this study include; how the relationship between the fortress and their functions? Is its structure comparable with spatial–physical urban configuration? Filed studies of this complex demonstrated that the fortress functioned not as a defensive structure but indeed because of its most social buildings such as the large halls, mosque and school spaces as well as the residential areas for its inhabitants it seems that it has acted as a Kohandejh during the peace periods. It was center of Kurdistan for a while. According to Soleiman Khan and Shah-Safi, in 1046 AH, this castle with 3 others (Zalm, Marivan and Palangan) were destroyed and was located by the new city of Sanandaj as a center of Kurdistan province.    

Abstract According to historical sources, in time of Oljaito reign the city was built at the foot hills of Bisotun mountain that called Sultan Abad-e Chamchamal. It was a main political region during the Ilkhanid period.
Due to the lack of archaeological studies, the exact position of this important site remains unclear and its exact location is the problems questioned in the archaeology of that region.
In this paper, first, we are going to show the probable location of Sultan Abad-e Chamchamal based on the historical sources, then by analyzing data which were gathered from our archaeological survey as well as linguistic information. We maintain that Sultan Abad-e Chamchamal may be located at the modern Tepe Hala Bag where the previous studies have no chance to discover it.

Abstract The diagnostic Zagros highland MC I ceramic assemblage is called Dalma, after the type site of Dalma Tepe in the southern Lake Urmia basin of Azerbaijan. The remarkable issue about this period, however, is the widespread distribution of these ceramics. Chronologically, the Dalma tradition is dated back to fifth and fourth millennium B.C .in west of Iran. The Dalma type sites in northwest of Iran bearing four Dalma diagnostic wares but in central Zagros especially in interaction spheres with other pottery traditions Dalma contexts experienced more pottery types. For examples to the more eastern areas in Abhar plain or Sojasroud valley, besides these Dalma wares, small samples of Central Plateau painted wares also appeared. In this context potteries sub-divided into two main original Dalma wares and peripheral wares classes. In contrast to the more southern parts, Dalma diagnostic type turns into secondary pottery tradition. In this article XRF analysis was carried out on Soha Chai Tepe Dalma assemblages, to better understand the nature of their distribution and to further the understanding of interaction between two adjacent pottery traditions.

Abstract This paper presents the petrographic examination results on the thirteen pottery sherds from the first season of excavation of Tepe Gratziani in Sistan plain. In order to specify whether the pottery were local or imported, conducted experiments have been performed by polarizing microscope of Jame Swift Model in the petrographic lab of the Institute of Cultural Heritage which based on the review of test results and geological map of the area. It became clear that the source of all the pottery is local and also the remained structure of kilns demonstrates the local production of Tepe Gratziani’s pottery. Sections of examining pottery sherds show that the baking temperature has not been more than 800 centigrade due to the presence of Meekers “tiny calcite crystals” with less than 4 microns in size as well as the presence of Asparay “coarse calcite crystal” in the pottery sections.

Abstract Firuz Abad or Shahr-e Gur is an important city founded by Ardashir Papakan. Despite of researches on Gur and spatial structure of the city, there is ambiguity about function of its architecture especially one which is called "Takhtneshin". Some believe that it may be an Achamenid tomb, while others suggest it to have been functioned as Sassanid fire temple or Chartagh. For a comprehensive study, this research uses field material, historical written resourses as well as descriptive-analytical approaches. Data analysis indicated that the structural patterns of so-called Takhtneshin categorized here as "nine domes structures, can be regarded as a ceremonial building functioning throughout the Sassanid period.

Abstract Fars Cultural sphere have different perspectives, including mountainous areas with a cold weather, central part with a temperate climate while the southern part which is limited by the northern Persian Gulf coasts; experiences warmer conditions. According to the archaeological importance of the region, the Bavanat River Basin was investigated aiming at (1) to identify all cultural monuments, (2) to provide the archaeological maps of the area, (3) to investigate the evolutionary process of settlements in different periods, and (4) to assess the environmental effects on the formation of settlements and to explain the cultural position of the study area. During the survey, 200 archaeological sites were identified to have been dated from the Neolithic period to the Late Islamic period. The oldest site is related to the Neolithic but until the Bakun era, there has been no settlement identified. Eight sites revealed Bakun painted potteries and seven sites showed potteries from Lapui period. Since from Banesh period there has been just one occupational site it seems that after Banesh the basin was abandoned until the Achaemenid period.

Abstract The ancient city of Isfarayen, known as “Bolqays” in literatures, is one of the most important and magnificent cities of Iran during the early Islamic ages. It is located in north eastern cultural part of Iran with remnants regarding to early Islamic centuries. This research considers the existence of ceramic filling furnaces, earthen tripods and hub stoves as an evidence of centrality of Bolqays among hundreds of villages in accordance with ancient literatures, following explaining and categorizing potteries in this cultural area and comparing them with other discovered potteries during the second century to forth Hijri century, by introducing one of the most important cultural material indicators in archeology, which according to these evidences describes that potteries are totally depended on figures. Thereby these potteries are not considered as imported materials in these areas. Other important result deducted about potteries available in these regions is the belief of artists and faith of artifice creators in monotheism thoughts, therefore the underlying unity of actions is actually considered as an explanation for unity of thoughts and monotheism faith which is originated from hearts and souls of handicrafts and it is reflected in figures.

Abstract The main goal of this paper is study of the internal and external cultural interactions of the Bronze Age sites in the Mazandaran plain and its mountainous areas on the basis of pottery analysis. Plain and painted red and burnished gray and dark wares are two prototypes potteries of the Mazandaran Bronze Age period. We have studied potteries which were gathered from some excavations and surface survey projects carried out in the region through comparing them with other potteries from the neighboring regions. This study has been to identify the parallel production of red and gray potteries and internal and gradual transformation of ceramic technology in the Bronze Age of Mazandaran to assess assertions concerning its eastern or western interactions.

Abstract The symbolic scenes of the divine investiture of the Kings is one of the most widely used themes in the art of the Ancient East that reflect the interconnectedness of politics and religion and serves to display the supreme position of the King and his divine right. The recurrence of these scenes in the art of ancient Iran indicates the use of ancient and foreign traditions by Iranians. The reason behind the Persian Kings’ appeal to this tradition is the question that, this research is going to answer based on the historical issues and political considerations. The analyses show that the Achaemenids in the face of the Ancient East, Arsacids in the faced the Greeks and Sassanians in the face of Kushan and Romans, used artistic language for their propaganda and the investiture scenes were among the most important ones. The propaganda was also used among the common people and internal rivals of the King. Accordingly, some of the Persian Kings, most notably Darius I, Ardeshir I, and Chosroes II, who had challenges in terms of legitimacy, turned to these scenes. Consequently, the iconography of the Gods in these scenes, despite being considered disgraceful in the view of the Zoroastrianism, is related to the royal custom, and should not be considered the revelation or religious heresy of the Kings.

Abstract The Kerman region stands out as one of the most significant mining areas globally, owing to its extensive and abundant mineral resources. Bam County, situated in the southeastern part of Kerman, has historically served as a crucial hub connecting the southeast of Iran with Sistan and Afghanistan, attributed to its distinctive geological and geomorphological characteristics. Enjoying considerable commercial and military importance since the Sassanid era, Bam County has garnered attention in archaeological research as a strategically vital region. The exploration of Bam's archaeological sites becomes imperative for historical governments, highlighting the need to investigate and comprehend ancient centers engaged in metal smelting and mining activities. Consequently, an archaeological survey of the central part of Bam County was initiated in 2018-2019 with the specific objective of identifying metal smelting workshops and ancient mines. This article presents the outcomes of a field survey conducted in the central part of Bam County, shedding light on evidence of metal smelting centers, furnaces, and historical mining activities. The primary research inquiries center around the chronology of mining evidence in the central part of Bam County, the types of metals extracted, and the processes involved in metal mining and metallurgy within this region. Employing field and documentary methods, the research adopts a descriptive-analytical approach. The study identified and examined eight sites showcasing evidence of smelting and slag, one ancient mine, and two active mines. These sites have been associated with the extraction and processing of metals and elements such as tin, zinc, lead, silver, iron, and, to a lesser extent, gold. Notably, the substantial volume of zinc and zinc oxide processing in seven sites holds significance. Although cultural materials for chronological dating were absent in the investigated sites, historical sources indicate that the extraction and smelting of these metals in the region date back to at least the 3rd century AH (9th century AD) and persisted until the Qajar period

Abstract In Iranian archaeology, Sistan played an important role especially in the Parthian period. This region is well known since it was cross road for Greeksto reach the East, a place for Scythians arrival, the presence of powerful Suren Pahlav clan and the place of epic and heroic tales. During the Parthian era favorable environmental conditions of Sistan caused to arise many of towns and settlements in this region as from the total 1662 archaeological site discovered, 392 of which were assigned to be occupied by Parthians. Evidence of these settlements are scattered in the northern and especially southern half of Sistan which are nowadays remain a depopulated desert. Large Parthian sites were identified in each of the two parts so that we regarded them as the central places according to their ranking in Sistan. During this period of time, Sistan was a prosperous land and it was populated due to the abundance of water resources and suitable arable lands. This paper tries to explore the impact of environmental factors in the Parthian settlement patterns since our archaeological data derived from our fieldwork indicated that there has been a positive correlation between the environment and the sites occupation processes.    

Abstract As the achievement and an invaluable index of the Iranian culture, Ayvan (known also as Eyvan) has been the subject of many pieces of research by architects, archaeologists and art historians for almost a century. Although it is a conventional space for the researchers, Ayvan is widely unknown and neglected. To be recognized as it deserves and to understand its origin, shape, concept, and function, a deep and meticulous approach is required. A comprehensive analysis of Ayvan provides a comparison of this structure through different periods in the tradition of Iranian architecture and enables us in arriving at an exact recognition and analysis of Ayvan. This knowledge hasa vital contribution to the advancement of studies in archeology, history, architecture, and art history. The advent of Ayvan, its continuation in the course of history, and the factors influencing its formation have not yet been fully analyzed. This paper aims at a critical analysis of the hypotheses regarding the origin and the development of Ivan in the tradition of Iranian architecture. A better understanding of the true origin of this structure provides a better understanding of its functions. As one of the obvious symbols of spiritual and material aspects of Iranian high culture, Ayvan has therefore played a key role in understanding the characteristics and cultural values of the Iranian society, reflecting the technical skills, artistry, elegance and the subtlety of thought among Iranians.  

Abstract Present paper review 350 sites from Middle Paleolithic, upper Paleolithic, Epipaleolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages, respectively, 4, 9, 6, 28, 36, 15 and 252 sites. Pearson correlation coefficient test indicates a meaningful relationship between number of sites through every single period and other variations including longitude, distance to river and climate. Some 60.9% of sites located at -26 m to 500 m longitude, including fertile plains and foothills that reward seashore and marine sources. Most of the sites locates at the eastern part of the region that is generally plains with low humidity and precipitation. There are 18.1% of Iron Age sites at 1000-1500 m longitude that consist of seasonal settlements of mountain valleys. There is not meaningful relation between number of sites and slope variable. Most of the sites locates at 0-1500 m far from rivers. Considering analysis about settlement patterns in prehistoric sites of the region, number of Middle Paleolithic to Chalcolithic sites suggest an ascending process, however, they the number decreases during Bronze Age. Then, the sites increase during Iron Age, which indicate ties between high density of settlements and high capacity of environment. Finally, the average area of settlements increased from Neolithic to Bronze Ages, then decreased during Iron Age.

Abstract The present paper involves the investigation and identification of the insignia of 240 Achamenid shekels, from the collection of the Mazandaran Museum. Investigation of law enforcement indicates that the collection was seized from looters in the Asalooyeh region (ambiguous locality). Subsequent preliminary work suggests these are typical coins of seven kings who reigned for around 184 years between 522 BC to 338 BC. Some 195 coins of the total 240 have signs, mostly with one sign, while rare samples present up to 9 signs. Numismatists and archaeologists have assigned them various functions, including mint sign, finesse, and weight affirmation. Do the definitions include the studied collection? Why do some of the coins have no signs? The investigations led to the discernment of 567 signs, typically from plain to geometrical and zoomorphic ones. There are many signs in the collection that are similar to known samples in many ways, however, there are unique signs unsimilar to any other marks thus far identified, which are not necessarily mint marks, because they are more obvious than the king’s figure that is eroded in most of the cases. Obviously, they are later engravings, whereas, 45 coins lacks any signs. The other conclusion is the transition of concepts of the signs as hidden mysterious messages such as a king death and reign of a new king.  

Abstract Scientific advances in the laboratory testing have provided the most effective means for archaeologists to examine their artifactual data in a science-based framework. In this research project we have been able to examine 30 ceramic samples from two archaeological sites with the homogeneous ceramic horizon.
North-central Iran, approximately the area lying between Kashan, Qazvin and Tehran is, characterized by uninterrupted plains watered by streams from the neighboring mountain ranges. As there are no major geographic barriers, in many periods ceramic assemblages were identical throughout the area. Finely made painted ware characterizes the upper part of Cheshmeh Ali IA and has been found at Qara Tepe and Esmailabad Tepe west of Tehran in the upper levels at Zagheh at Saveh and in Sialk II. It occurs in a variety of shapes including cup bowls, spouted bowls, hemispherical and closed bowls, shallow and deep bowls on pedestal feet, basket-handled pot and concave-sided cups. Cheshmeh Ali ceramic horizon is hand-made of fine grained fabric and covered with a burnished orange-to-red slip and painted in black on red. A wide variety of designs include lozenges hatched triangles, festoons, chevrons braided patterns and stylized animals and fish. It is especially well known from the excavations carried out at Tepe Esmailabad. The material from this site seems more elaborate than that of Zagheh. In spite of the facts that all the examined samples belong to the same ceramic horizon in the area XRF and XRD, laboratory testing has indicated certain technological differences between two groups of samples.

Abstract Next to the archaeological excavations, conservation and restoration of remains of monuments in the fields have received the attention of scientific archaeological excavations. Exposure of new finding materials to the microclimate conditions of earth surface causes to encourage their degradation process. Humidity and cryogenic fluctuations are the most important destructive factors for the architecture remains. Since a number of sites in the north and northwest of Iran encounter precipitation humidity and consequently the destruction of architecture remains, it appears that isolating outer remains of these structures using the compatible mortar is one of the best methods to reduce their damage. Lime mortar is appropriate for this purpose owing to its acceptable characteristics against the humidity. In this research, cow dung ash, rice husk ash and wood (with specific gradation) were used to optimize the lime mortar. The mix of these materials with lime paste prepared 6 different types of lime-pozzolan mortar. To determine the appropriate sample in terms of durability and consolidation against the natural cycles, accelerated aging tests including wetting and drying cycles, freezing & thawing and salt attack cycles as well as physical characteristics (densitometry, water absorption, and durability) for all types. The results of above processes indicated that the compositions of cow dung ash pozzolan’s have better resistance to the aging cycles and other physical experiments. Using XRD and XRF analyses, the structure and the amount of mineral phases were determined. Based on the results, it is recommended that lime mortar (optimized with cow dung ash) be used in the historic monuments and the humid climates of the north and northwest of Iran.
Conservation of the historical works while archeological excavations and the conservation, restoration, and maintenance of the obtained remnants in the excavation area, including tombs, architectural remnants, foundations, and even some of the ornaments after excavation are among the moral and professional principles of the scientific archeology.(Sease,1996) The necessity of the conservation of the archeological remnants in the recent century has been one of the most significant parts included in the macro planning of the archaeological approaches and cultural heritage-related knowledge. Among the measures taken for the conservation of the architectural clay and adobe remains after archaeological excavations are: 1) temporary conservation of the hills within the excavation times; 2) re-burial by re-filling the excavation area; 3) bricklaying and covering the walls and the remnants works in the area; 4) implementing roofs and shelters in the area for the temporary or permanent conservation; 5) using chemical and biological substances to strengthen the walls; 6) the use of geotextiles (permeable polymer textiles), and 7) coating the surface in the cold or humid regions.(Baghbanan et al, 2016; Rahmani,2006, Stanley Price,1999; Jandro et al 1999) Also, the northwest of Iran is among the rich regions of Iran in terms of archeology and tourism attractions, with an area of 7.2% out of the country's total area.(Negahban,1998) The northwest part of Iran is among the mountainous regions with a cold and dry climate in terms of climate conditions, causing the ancient sites to be severely damaged after archeological excavations. Therefore, it is necessary to prioritize compatible solutions in conservation measures. One of these measures is the use of protective mortars. The construction technology and mix design of this kind of mortars must be recognized to achieve the most efficient and stable formula; because it leads to the principled conservation in maintaining the obtained remnants in the ancient sites and saving the conservation costs in the future, in addition to achieving a mixture and processing methods and making the optimal mortar. (table 1)
How to use compatible mortars to protect architectural remains from archaeological excavations in the northwestern climate of Iran.What variable depends on the quality of compatible lime-based mortar with natural fillers? The protection of ancient sites after exploration in the northwestern climate can be done with compatible and eco-friendly calcareous mortar. The quality of lime-based mortar compatible with natural fillers depends on the high silica content of the filler.
Mortar Manufacturing: Lime was kept constant at 30%, and wood ash, rice husk, and animal waste were used as a pozzolan to mix the mortar filler to optimize the lime-based mortar. Six lime-based mortar mixtures with different amounts of rice husk ash (20, 35%), wood ash, and animal waste (10 and 35%) were used. 16 cubes were prepared from each mortar sample. Mortar samples were tested and analyzed to complete the setting reactions after 27 days from manufacture time. (Table 2). aboratory Studies: Laboratory studies include the determining examinations of the physical features of the samples (humidity percentage and water absorption, density, and porosity), (table.3) geological structure by determining the elements using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis method, fuzzy determination using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis, and assessment of endurance properties based on the national and international standards(Table 7-8, Figures 10-11). The consecutive wetting and drying cycle, Freeze-Thaw cycle, the endurance against salt hydration cycle, mortar samples durability test.(Figure 1-3- 6-8 and Table.4-6).
After archeological excavations, the key issue of historical sites is increasing the humidity percentage and cold and heat fluctuations. As stated in the research literature, there are various solutions to reduce and manage humidity and cold fluctuations. In this study, using a durable and optimized mortar system ware studied to reduce the destructive effect of the above factors, especially in the northwestern region of the country. Accordingly, native and natural pozzolans were used to optimize the lime-based mortar. The applied pozzolans in this study include rice husk ashes, cow dung ash, and wood ash. According to the conducted studies, six different groups of mortar with different ratios were manufactured from the combination of three pozzolans along with sand and lime paste. Then, after 27 days to complete the mortar reaction, the proper samples were prepared for laboratory tests. These tests include accelerating aging methods (drying and wetting cycles, freeze-thaw cycle, and salt cycle) and the physical features (densitometry, porosimetry, water absorption, and durability (durability test)) implemented for all samples. The results of the examinations showed that the mortar with compounds and mix percentage (30% lime paste + 35% sand + 35% animal waste ash) has good resistance to aging, freezing and thawing cycles, and salt cycle. The selected sample showed satisfactory results after three durability cycles and was placed in a durable mortar class. Given the important role of grading in the durability and quality of the mortar, the results obtained from the grading diagram show that the pozzolan of the cow dung ash enjoys a proper grading than other pozzolans. According to the results of the above research, it is proposed that the pozzolan-lime mortars with the formula of 30% lime paste+ 35% sand+ 35% cow dung ash are used to overcome the descending humidity and environmental corrosion in the architectural remnants of the excavated historical sites in the cold climates, such as the ancient sites of the northwest of the country to evaluate the results in practice as well. The results indicate this mix's efficiency in the humid regions and salty regions near the wetting and drying cycles and freezing.
Mortar reversibility is another considerable point in using the coating mortars. Although reversibility is not entirely possible concerning some protective measures and materials, such as reinforcement and coating with polymeric materials in porous materials, the remarkable thing about applying mortars to protect the architectural remains from its archaeological excavations is that these mortars are suitable for reversibility. Their coating property depends on the depth of penetration of the mortar adhesive in the substrate and because this penetration is not very high (maximum 1 cm of slurry). Mortars use the substrate as a support in the coating state, and the principal setting occurs in the mortar and its components. Therefore, their function will be as a sacrificed layer in conservation. Based on the conditions of the studied mortars, in the case of proper monitoring and solving the critical causes of the destruction of the selected mortar, it seems that they will be efficient for at least five years. Finally, after the destruction process, their surface can be reconstructed, or the coating mortar can be implemented again.

Abstract In this article, by analyzing the research activities conducted in the Central Zagros region in the Iron Age, the shortcomings, contradictions, questions and theories have been expressed, and in addition to presenting the general framework of previous researches, they have been criticized and analyzed. For this purpose, past and current published activities as well as some unpublished reports have been considered. This can be useful in identifying future research priorities. The transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Central Zagros is largely unknown, and in archaeological excavations in this area, due to lack of accurate stratigraphic excavations, terms such as Iron Age I, II and III cannot be used for its different areas. Therefore, in this article, the general term of the Early Iron Age for Iron Age I and II is used.The Central Zagros region has long been interesting to archaeologists. The French geologist Jacques de Morgan visited the Luristan region in the 19th century and identified many sites. Ernst Herzfeld in the early years of the twentieth century surveyed many areas of the Zagros region and identified Tepe Giyan in the county of Nehavand. This site was later excavated by G. Contenau and R. Ghirshman. Stein conducted archaeological research in Luristan and excavated several Iron Age tombs in Hulailan and Badawar. Almost at the same time as Stein, the Holmes expedition was one of the teams that conducted archaeological studies in the Luristan region under Schmidt’s direction. In 1934 and 1935, he conducted archaeological surveys and excavations in Luristan, and in 1938, he excavated Surkh Dum for three weeks; this site is highly important for reasons such as being a settlement land and having hundreds of different objects. Sites such as Kamtarlan, Chigha Sabz and Surkh Dum were excavated during performing this research. A review of the research background conducted in the Central Zagros region indicates that the excavations were scattered and non-purposeful and at first, more attention was paid to objects. In the early studies of the Iron Age, there was no definite plan, and most of the information obtained was based on individual, and in some cases, incidental research. The lack of necessary standards in excavations has made the problem more complex. Some of the excavations were not fully published or were later conducted by others. These problems are observed in some sites such as Tang-i Hamamlan, Surkh Dum, Cheshmeh Mahi, Tepe Giyan, Khatun Ban, Jameh Shuran, Tepe Guran, Chigha Sabz, and Kamtarlan. The Iron Age in the Central Zagros is often based on studies conducted in the 1970s and 1980s. These researches started with scattered studies, and projects related to Luristan bronzes were revived. Attempts to identify bronze makers as well as their stylistics, and their geographical origin were among the reasons for focusing on Iron Age activities in the Central Zagros. Previous scattered studies were mostly based on the stylistics of objects. In the following decades, Luristan bronzes were strongly considered, and the research teams of the Danish in Hulailan, the British team in Delfan (Dilfan), and the Belgian delegation in Pusht-i Kuh (Ilam Province) conducted extensive studies in this field. In the 1970s and 1980s, during the Godin project, valuable surveys and excavations were conducted, based on which a purposeful approach on chronology, settlement patterns, comparison to the Bronze Age, and connections of the Central Zagros to other regions were considered. Nevertheless, problems, such as separation of Iron Age I and II phases from each other, involvement of theories in the north of the Central Plateau in the Central Zagros region, and uncertainty of the period of some pottery traditions like Elamite/Kassite goblets are among its shortcomings. It should also be noted that this study did not cover all parts of the Central Zagros. Clare Goff's research in the 1970s considerably contributed to the understanding of the Iron Age in the Luristan region. The excavations of Louis Vanden Berghe in Pusht-i Kuh led to excavation of 11 Early Iron Age cemeteries, which have been thoroughly investigated in the chronology of objects obtained from this area. The Danish excavation in Tepe Guran had a good sequence, but the speed of the excavation and the lack of phasing have somewhat reduced the quality of the work.The timing of the use of iron metal, either as a decoration or as a public tool in the Central Zagros, has not been precisely determined. Among the findings of Iron Age I, currently there is no conclusive evidence, and the beginning of this phase is based more on pottery changes. In the studies of this area, the emergence of gray Gray Ware as well as Kassite/Elamite pottery and the end of Godin III pottery tradition is regarded as the beginning of the Iron Age. Lack of gray pottery in all areas of the Central Zagros as an indicator, contradiction at the beginning of the Iron Age, existence of different traditions such as the difference between Pish-i Kuh and Pusht-i Kuh, and lack of separation of pottery from settlement sites with cemeteries are among the challenges of this phase. This complexity is intensified in Iron Age II, so that it is not presently possible to distinguish between this phase and the previous phase. Although pottery has been introduced as Iron Age II, firstly, these samples exhibit regional differences and secondly, their start, end or phasing time is unknown. Among the types of gray pottery, no distinction can be made between Iron Age I and II pottery. Based on surveys and excavations of cemeteries in this period, we encounter a decrease in settlement or a change in settlements, and our evidence from this period is more incomplete than that of the previous period. In general, , lack of a chronological framework for its various regions, scattered surveys, lack of standards in excavations, or long delays in the publication of reports, are among the problems in the Central Zagros region. Additionally, inadequate recording, different interpretations, lack of separation of the different phases of the Iron Age, imposing theories on data, paying attention to objects and neglecting details like architecture, and not paying sufficient attention to the findings of northern Mesopotamia are other problems. Furthermore, uncertainty of the beginning of the Iron Age in different parts of the Central Zagros, lack of detailed study of economic, technological and political changes from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age, uncertainty of the impact of atmospheric factors on sites, ambiguity of the Central Zagros association with the Ilam civilization and lack of accurate excavation in areas covering all phases of this period are among the other problems. Moreover, insufficient knowledge of Luristan bronzes and unknown details such as manufacturers, production centers, accurate stylistics, and time of their production are other shortcomings of the Iron Age of the Central Zagros region. To start research activities in the Central Zagros region, considering these shortcomings, we need purposeful, long-term, question-based projects using interdisciplinary studies.

Abstract Early Bronze Age (EBA) in the Middle East is considered to be the dawn of civilization, spread of writing, and proto-urbanism; and Mesopotamia was the center of these historical events.
Cultural material remains at the beginning of this period in this vast area – including Western Iran, Caucasus (also beyond), Anatolia, Levant and Northern Mesopotamia – have wonderful similarities in spite of different names (EBA, Trans-Caucasian, Yanig culture, Kura-Arax culture).
Unluckily, for many reasons Archaeological researches focused on this vast area like Caucasus separately. For recent three decades there have been numerous surveys and excavations and multi-disciplined studies in western Iran. It seems EBA culture spreads out to Central Plateau of Iran so that the core of this culture could be Arax-Urmia-Kura basin.
Presented here are the results of an archaeological analysis on Early Bronze Age from Northwest of Iran, Central Zagros, Central Plateau of Iran and borderlands using some scientific information and data such as GIS and obsidian provenance studies.

Abstract Today, the approach of new archeology studies is applying different sciences, especially use of geographic information system (GIS) and sciences such as statistics, and different methods and models of these sciences. By using other scientific methods and tools, the orientation of spaces archeology has largely achieved a correct understanding of issues such as establishment pattern of ancient civilizations and the interactions between humans and environment. Darreh Shahr city in Ilam province is one of the areas where, apart from some scattered references in the content of geographical texts, no purposeful study has been done regarding the presence of Sassanids there. Therefore, in order to fill this historical gap, after conducting archeological studies with the aim of discovering the cultural evidence of the Sassanid presence in this city, 117 monuments were identified. Some researchers believe that the ruins of Seymareh in the south and southwest of the present city of Darreh Shahr during the Sassanid period, and at the center of Mehrjan-e-Ghazq furnace was part of the western part or Khorbaran coast.In this study, for the first time and with respect to environmental elevation, slope, land use, and distance from roads and rivers, the settlement pattern and spatial distribution of Sassanid landscapes of Darreh Shahr are analyzed using descriptive-analytical method and field-library studies. To achieve goals such as locating ancient sites, analysis of settlement patterns and finally, investigating the impact of environmental factors on the formation process and distribution of Sassanid areas, tools such as Geographic Information System (GIS), SPSS software, statistical models such as mean of nearest neighbor, linear regression, correlation coefficient and PCA method were used. The results show that the most important factor affecting the spatial distribution of Sassanid sites in Darreh Shahr is first, the distance from rivers and then, the factors such as altitude and slope of the area. In addition, based on the average nearest neighbor model, the pattern of settlement in the Sassanid areas of this region is almost identical and clustered.

Abstract During the last half of the 4th century CE, we recognize the presence of a desert-dwelling tribe called the Huns or the Hephthalites, who invaded the northeastern borders of Iran, killing and looting. These people, who had flowed from western China to Central Asia, invaded northern Khorasan from time to time. The presence of such a great enemy forced several Sassanid kings to sally to the east to defend this important border, among them was  Yazdgerd I, whose campaign to repel these invaders lasted seven years. The Dastgerd of Yazd Shaporan and the Bandian fire temple have been mentioned as Yazdgerd’s place of residence. Like Yazdgerd, Bahram V was also aware of the potential danger of nomads from the north and his presence on the front caused a heavy defeat for the Hephthalites. This is memorialized in the Bandian Dargaz, one of the fire temples of the Sassanid period. In the hall of this fire temple, the events of the war between Bahram V and the Hephthalite king are painted on stucco. In these stuccos, various scenes of Bahram V's departure from Ctesiphon to fight with the king of the Hephthalites has been shown in the form of successive motifs. The mentioned stuccos have been researched based on historical texts. In addition to the plaster motifs, the Sasanian Pahlavi inscriptions inscribed on the wall of the altar of the fire temple also provide additional context for some of these motifs. This fire temple, which was built during the time of Yazdgerd I, was developed further during the time of Bahram V, especially concerning the elaboration of stucco motifs. This fire temple was destroyed by the Hephthalites during the time of the Sasanian king Pirouz. Therefore, only a part of the lower part of the stucco remains. The present author's comments about some of the characters in this stucco have been criticized. We believe that this criticism, while welcome, has not been careful in matching motifs with some historical events.

Abstract The eastern side of Central Zagros is one of the most important areas in the Neolithic development, which has remained unknown in terms of its common cultural tradition as requires more in detail studies. Among these unknowns, “Malayer Plain”  is associated with the effects of the “Late Neolithic” period Traditions. In terms of role and color, this is a part of the 6^th Millennium B.C., which due to the evolution of Pottery-making can be distinguished from the earlier periods. One of the most important pottery traditions is Sarab-Style, which is a pivot point to the recognition of the Late Neolithic of Central Zagros. This type of pottery has been identified along the eastern boundaries of Central Zagros on Malayer plain. This cultural region is considered as a blind spot of Neolithic studies due to the lack of question-oriented studies. The present research is based on the of Trench I & II excavation of the Tappeh Posht-e Forodgah studying the presence of Late Neolithic tradition  on the Malayer plain, answering the question: What are the common Neolithic cultures of the Malayer Plain and by which  common Late Neolithic cultural traditions of the Central Zagros has affected? In order to analyze the stratigraphy of the settlements formed at the Tappeh Posht-e Forodgah, a complete view of the Neolithic sequence on the eastern boundaries of Central Zagros, an excavation of the Posht-e Forodgah Site was carried out. How that two traditions of pottery or domestic or non-domestic potteries were common in this region simultanously; Eventually, the impact of the Late Neolithic period and common cultural traditions of Kermanshah plain (Segabi, Syahbid and Sarab) and Lurestan (Qelagap) on the Malayer Plain have been attested.

Abstract The limit and definition of the cultural zone of Jazmurian in the southeastern Iran is identical with the geographical boundarise of Jazmurian basin and in geographical setting. The cultural zone of Jazmurian could be identified with the ancient Makan of Akadian period, Gedrosia and Achofadjia of historical period. The remains of ancient city of Jiroft during Islamic period at the Archeaological site of Shahre –e- Daqyanus with more than 12 sq. km have been identified. The city was a metropolitan with various quarters, squares, streets, four gates, market, mosque, different public bathes, mint, industrial quarter and workshops, kilns of pottery and cemetry. There is mass production of different types of Islamic Ceramics in Jiroft from 7^th – 13^th centuries. These types of ceramics have connection & similarity with other contemporary types in other cultural centers such as China, Oman and inside Iran Such as Nishapur, Suse, Kashan, Rey and Jurjan The prosperous and wealthy city of Jiroft was destroyed by the continoues attacks of Ghoz and finally was abandoned in the 7^th century (13^th A.D).    

Abstract The archaeological site of Tol-e Qaleh Seyfabad, with an area of approximately 160 hectares, is one of the important sites of the Sasanian period, which was formed about 500m west of Parishan Lake, in the southwest of Kazerun city, on the natural hill so-called Tol-e Pahan. Due to the building of the Kazerun-Shiraz gas pipeline between 1984 and 1986, the middle part of this site was severely destroyed. Archaeological excavation, as well as ground surveys, show that the exposed building/fort in Tol-e Qaleh Seyfabad has a quadrangular structure, each side of which is probably between 75 and 80 m long, and there were probably four towers in its four corners. The low thickness of the external wall, the type, and quality of construction materials used in it, as well as the dimensions of the interior spaces/units, may indicate that the building was not very high. The spaces adjacent to the northwestern principal wall are generally small and are used for storing and processing agricultural products.In the four corners of the Nakhlak fort located in the intermediate region of Naein and Anarak, the towers are similar to Tol-e Qaleh Seyfabad’s tower, although it has a different plan. In addition, other defensive buildings such as Fulayj fort in Oman, Gorgan Wall fortifications, and Abu Sharifa fort in Mesopotamia are among the defensive structures that are similar to the Tol-e Qaleh Seyfabad building in terms of plans and towers. Archaeological excavation, as well as ground surveys, show that the exposed building/fort in Tol-e Qaleh Seyfabad has a quadrangular structure, each side of which is probably between 75 and 80 m long, and there were probably four towers in its four corners. The low thickness of the external wall, the type, and quality of construction materials used in it, as well as the dimensions of the interior spaces/units, may indicate that the building was not very high. The spaces adjacent to the northwestern principal wall are generally small and are used for storing and processing agricultural products.

Abstract Abstract
Earthquakes are natural events that are beyond human control, but they create consequences and changes that transform, alter, or modify human structures, settlements, and cultures. Godin Tepe is one of the ancient sites in western Iran where evidence of at least two earthquake events in different periods has been identified through archaeological excavations. One of these destructive earthquakes occurred at the end of Phase 2 of Layer III at Godin Tepe, which appears to have led to environmental and cultural changes not only at Godin Tepe but also throughout the Kangavar Plain. One piece of evidence for this is the significant reduction in settlement sites during the period following Phase II of Godin III in the Kangavar Plain; this decline in settlements is also observed in the Iron Age in the region. Towards the end of the Godin III2 period and the (Post Godin III) IIIp-2 period, changes occurred in the settlements of the Kangavar Plain, indicating a shift in lifestyle from sedentism to nomadism. In this context, the present study seeks to explore the reasons behind this change in settlement patterns by examining the contributing factors. The main research question is: How can the factors influencing the change in the settlement pattern of the Kangavar Plain after the III2 period of Godin are investigated. The research method is based on documentary data collection and employs a descriptive-analytical approach. In this study, climatic factors, political conditions (war and violence), and the earthquake that occurred during this period in the region were examined. Given the climatic and political stability of the region in the second half of the second millennium BCE, the earthquake is considered a significant reason for the change in the lifestyle of the people in the Kangavar region.
Keywords: Arthquake, Kangavar Plain, Godin III2, Godin IIIp-2, Settlement Pattern Change, Nomadism.
 
1. Introduction
Earthquakes are natural events that have occurred in Iran since ancient times, both in prehistoric and historical periods, due to the country’s seismic activity and the presence of active faults in the region. Disaster archaeology, in the context of earthquakes, examines and evaluates the impact of such disasters on communities after their occurrence, assessing the vulnerability of societies that experience them. It proposes earthquakes as one of the drivers of cultural change (Torrence & Grattan, 2002: 1, 2). During the archaeological excavations conducted by Cuyler Young between 1965 and 1973 at Godin Tepe in the central Zagros region (Young & Levine, 1974), evidence from the Godin III period, specifically in phases III5, III4, and III2, suggested that earthquakes had occurred at the end of these phases. Young hypothesized that these earthquakes led to the abandonment of Godin Tepe for periods of up to a century before the site was reoccupied (Young & Levine, 1974: 27, 28; Henrickson, 1987: 216, 220, 224; Gopnik & Rothman, 2011: 198, 200, 205).
In the III2 layer of Godin, it is observed that towards the end of this phase, the lifestyle of the communities in the Kangavar Plain shifted from sedentism to nomadism. Additionally, in the subsequent period, there was a significant reduction in the number of settlement sites, which is inferred from the increase in non-settlement locations during this period in the region (Henrickson, 1986: 24). This research aims to identify the reasons behind the change in the settlement pattern of the Kangavar region from sedentism to nomadism in the late Godin III2 period, as well as the decline in settlements in the plain after the Godin III2 period. It seeks to investigate the factors influencing this shift in the region’s lifestyle.
 
2. Analysis and decision
The central Zagros region, with its numerous active faults, is considered one of the seismically active areas of Iran. Evidence of prehistoric earthquakes in this region has been uncovered through excavations at Godin Tepe. The III2 layer of Godin Tepe is one of the layers where evidence of an earthquake, such as thick mud-brick debris, displaced walls, collapsed structures, and broken pottery on floors, was discovered during Kyle Young’s excavations at the site (Young, 1969: 11). Young and Henrickson believe that the final abandonment of this layer was likely due to a severe earthquake that occurred at the end of the Godin III2 period (around 1600 BCE) (Young & Levine, 1974: 22; Henrickson, 2011: 270). Based on archaeological investigations in the Kangavar region and its surrounding areas, it can be stated that during or towards the end of the Godin III2 phase, there was an increase in nomadic lifestyles, which may have led to a rise in the number of settlement sites in phase III2 (Henrickson, 1986: 24). In the subsequent period (post-III2 phase), the distribution pattern of sites from this phase suggests the migration of pastoral nomads. So far, evidence from this phase has only been found in burial contexts during excavations. The presence of remote cemeteries, separate from ancient mounds, indicates that significant social and economic changes may have occurred (Henrickson, 1987: 213; Mazahéri, 2013: 81). Cemeteries unrelated to settlement sites are considered reflective of a nomadic lifestyle (Tala’i, 2014: 107).
Based on this, it is conceivable that after the catastrophic earthquake during the Godin III phase 2, the surviving population must have sought ways to continue their lives. Archaeological evidence does not indicate the exact timing or season of the earthquake, but we can reasonably assume, given the population decline or severe reduction, that the remaining population migrated to surrounding areas. This is similar to what happened in contemporary times following the 1957 Farsinaj and 1963 Karkaneh earthquakes in the Kangavar region, where some villages were abandoned or relocated due to severe destruction. The relocation of some villages was due to the extensive damage to houses, making debris removal and reconstruction impractical, leading to the construction of new homes in different locations while leaving the old villages in ruins. Additionally, some villages were abandoned due to water shortages caused by the drying up of springs following these earthquakes (Rahbar & Young, 1975: 41, 53, 111; Mohammadi Far & Motarjem, 2001: 172, 220).
Given these reasons, the change in settlement patterns and the decline in settlements after the second phase of Godin III can be attributed to the earthquake at Godin Tepe. Earthquakes are often accompanied by changes in the environment and water resources in affected areas, sometimes causing springs to dry up, altering river courses, reducing water levels, or increasing river flows. Additionally, earthquakes leave psychological trauma and fear among survivors, as evidenced by research on recent earthquakes in Iran, such as the 2017 Sarpol-e Zahab earthquake, which shows that severe fear, stress, and phobias related to ceilings and nighttime are psychological impacts of post-earthquake situations (Elyasi Sarzeli, 2019: 5). The consequences of such events affect earthquake survivors for years, even across three generations (Persho et al., 2020: 1399). Therefore, changes in environmental conditions, loss of water resources, and fear of another earthquake could be reasons for the shift in settlement patterns in the Kangavar Plain during the mid-second millennium BC.
 
3. Conclusion
Based on archaeological investigations conducted in the central Zagros region, research indicates that during the mid-second millennium BC and the period following Godin III2, there was a gradual shift in the settlement pattern of the region from sedentism to nomadism. In this study, the general factors influencing cultural changes in the region were examined. Climatic conditions were analyzed, and it was determined that although the region experienced three cold and dry climatic events during the late Holocene, the climate in the mid-second millennium BCE was warm, humid, and favorable, ruling it out as the primary reason for the change in settlement patterns. Another factor that occurred during this time in the region, with evidence found in the Godin III2 layer, is an earthquake. According to the excavator of the site, the earthquake occurred towards the end of this period. The evidence suggests that the earthquake was significant. Given that earthquake evidence has also been observed in the III5 and III4 layers of Godin Tepe, as well as the high seismic activity of the Kangavar region due to active faults such as Sahneh, Dinavar, and Nahavand, the occurrence of such an earthquake was not unexpected. Additionally, investigations in the Kangavar region revealed a significant decline in the number of settlement sites from the Godin III2 phase to the IIIp-2 phase. During this period, the total area occupied by settlements in the plain was estimated to be around 7 hectares, compared to approximately 27 hectares in the preceding period. This statistic itself highlights the collapse of settlements in the Kangavar Plain following the earthquake.
 

Abstract The Orzuiyeh Plain stands as a crucial region for understanding prehistoric, particularly Chalcolithic, settlements in southwestern Kerman Province. While sites like Gaz Tavileh, Morad Abad XII, and Vakil Abad have seen limited archaeological exploration, they have yielded insufficient data on the sequence of Chalcolithic occupation. To address this gap, a stratigraphic investigation of Tepe Morad Abad VIII, a prominent Chalcolithic mound in the area, was undertaken to establish a relative chronology and delve deeper into Chalcolithic life and pottery traditions. The mound’s substantial depth and scattered pottery fragments suggested a lengthy occupation spanning multiple cultural periods, likely associated with the Yahya Pottery Culture. Through meticulous field and library research, a detailed analysis of pottery artifacts revealed a clear sequence of Chalcolithic occupation across 60 distinct layers. Of the 2413 recovered sherds, 918 underwent in-depth study, including drawing and classification. The findings indicate continuous habitation at Tepe Morad Abad VIII throughout Yahya Periods VI, VC, VB, and VA, spanning from the early to late Chalcolithic era, with an estimated timeframe of 5600 to 4200 BCE.