Journal of Archaeological Studies

Abstract Symmetry is an analytical tool, used in recognition of intercultural relations as well as artistic objects comparison. It was first appeared in archaeological research since 1900’s by studying the patterns that were depicted on the potteries. Various cultures (different historical periods) have various symmetry tastes. Some kinds of cultural changes are reflected in changes in symmetry preferences and/or in the presence of a new type of symmetrical pattern. The purpose of this research is to study the transformation or continuity of culture in historical periods of Hittite civilization based on the symmetrical pattern. The present research, based on the study of the written sources and the study of sculpture and bas-reliefs of the Hittite civilization regarding the mathematical nature of the symmetrical pattern, shows that the first signs of the use of symmetry in the art of this civilization have been introduced during the Great Hittite kingdom. In this period, there were various kinds of translation, Bi-lateral, Reflection, and Rotation symmetries in motifs, which seem to be rendered consciously, non-random and with a specific purposes. The presence of a new type of symmetry pattern during the Neo-Hittite period is likely to be as the result of a change in environment or the settlement pattern.

Abstract From the end of 1960’s decade when Processual Archaeology was emerged until now, Ethno-archaeology has reconstructed economicو social, technological and ideological structures of the past societies. Nowadays, population estimating of ancient societies is one the most important matter in archaeology. Statistical analysis of ethno-archaeological data especially architectural records known from todays’ villages is one of the way of demography in archaeology. The region of Iranian Sistan is very important in ethno-archaeological point of view because of its high archaeological and ethnological capacities. To obtain the targets of this investigation, we studied villages of Sistan in geology and ethnology respects and in original rustic life range. Then, three villages named Vāselān, Abbasābād Piri and Karkoo were selected for ethno-archaeological researches. On the basis of this survey we can estimate the average of population in Sistan 38 person per hectares. Inserting some parameters such as settlement size and pattern, livelihood and crafts specialization the writers have added half of this estimation to it and conjectured that the average population of Shahr-e-sokhteh has been 57 person per hectares. To avoid any possible errors we recommend ± 5. Therefore, Shahr-e-sokhteh has had a population between 4200-5000 individual during its peak of magnificence in period II. This estimation has confirmed the viewpoint of anthropologist.

Abstract This paper demonatrates an Epistemological approach to the concept of material and meaning in archaeology. The starting point and the basic objective of this article is briefly concentrated on the epistemological analysis of very key concepts of material and meaning in archaeological studies. The interpretations and inferences of archaeological studies in this way have been based on material cultures as “archaeon” and production of meaning as “lost logoi” and “Lost or absent archai”. Archaeology in this respect as the inferential discipline in a very inevitable way is engaged with both material and meaning in their particular sense: Material as Cultural material or any material those could help archaeological interpretations as well as archaeological inferences to production of meaning introduced here as lost and absent meaning.

Abstract We re-discuss the so-called Jalalabad seal, a well-known cylinder seal dating of the late 3^rd millennium BC, reportedly found in Fars. It displays a scene related to a south-eastern Iranian religious or mythological iconography, showing a male supernatural character with snakes spreading out of his body, probably a divinity, and three women bowed for worship or submission in front of him. This scene is combined with an Indus Script signs sequence which connects this seal to a ‘family’ of short, equally well-known inscriptions in Indus signs recorded on ‘Persian Gulf’ round stamp seals, notably coming from Bahrain, ancient Dilmun, and southern Mesopotamia. The present discussion is based on a new, more detailed recording of the seal's intriguing iconography, and it brings another brick in the already imposing wall of the of acculturation and cosmopolitism phenomena attested in the Persian Gulf during the second half of the 3^rd millennium BC. At that time, Mesopotamian, Dilmunite, Maganite (Oman), Meluhhan (Indus) and Marhashean (Halil Rud) traders were interacting along the then main Near Eastern commercial highway, and a pervasive process of cultural hybridization was in full development. A review of the various Indus iconographic elements currently known in Iranian glyptic is finally proposed, trying to restitute for each of them their respective historical implications.

Abstract So far, many researches have been done about clergy, their hierarchy, role and position in the Sassanid era and there is considerable information about them. Most of this awareness comes from textual evidence, including religious and non-religious books. The only archaeological evidence related to this important stratum of the society of this period is the seals, the seals impression and also the reliefs of Kartir. The reliefs of Kartir, due to their predominance of individuality, do not help us much in understanding the role and position of this class in the Sassanid period, but the second group, the seals and, seals impression discovered belonging to the Sassanid period, is a first-hand source for studying this important and influential group. Although many of these seals, in particular the seals that were discovered on the Takht-e Soleyman, were introduced by scholars as Magi seals, only a small part of them are based on inscriptions into this stratum. This means that only a small part of them clearly have the phrase magician or priest. In the present study, this seals have been studied and in fact, they have been selected from all the seals attributed to Magies. The motifs on these seals are very diverse and include almost all the motifs on the seals of the Sassanid period, including human, animal, plant, symbolic and monogram. In this study, with the iconographic approach, only animal motifs depicted on Magi's inscriptions are inscribed. For this purpose, after collecting the desired designs from various reports - which are generally in the form of catalogs and introducing seals - and providing a brief description, they were analyzed based on Zoroastrian texts. This article has reached the general conclusion that there are no exclusive and special motifs of Moghan in painting, and this group has followed the same taste and general aesthetics

Abstract From the archaeological point of view, pottery contains valuable information about living conditions and economic, social and cultural interactions between peoples who live in a region or beyond in past. Identifying the pottery characteristics and its common styles in the region are the first steps for extracting and analyzing this information. Parthian-Sassanian pottery in the east of Iran consists of prominent features that show transregional interactions along with the persistence of local traditions. The collection of pottery sherds newly found in the Neh plain and the Chaharfarsakh Valley of the Nehbandan county provide indicative properties of the traditional pottery styles in eastern Iran during the Parthian and Sassanian periods. Comparative study of the diagnostic Parthian-Sasanian potteries of Sisatn and southern Khorasan demonstrates a close relationship between the pottery traditions of these two regions. Accordingly, the materials wich used as temper and the style of decorations bear an equal resemblance. This resemblance can be detected also in the form of the ceramics from Nehbandan with those from the historical sites of Sistan. Moreover, almost all of the potteries were manufactured using the wheel and only the sherds belonged to the handles, lids, or spouts are handmade. The study of potteries from the Nehbandan county shows that the historical processes in the Parthian and Sassanian periods and passing important roads such as the ancient Khorasan–Sistan route through the region have had a profound impact on the making and processing methods in the manufacturing of the potteries. This study shows that some styles in the Nehbandan region have indigenous and local traits, following the common pottery patterns in the east of Iran. A considerable number of studied cases are influenced by the prevalent designs in Iran which are comparable to the Parthian–Sassanian cultural centres. This is understandable in the context of historical events and cultural trends during the Parthian–Sassanian period

Abstract Chāhdādkhodā is located at the southernmost of Kerman province; on the border with ‎provinces ‎of Sistan & Baluchistan and Hormozgan.‎ In the administrative divisions of Iran, This area is one of dual districts of Qalehganj towns. ‎In 2016, the first archaeological survey season of Qalehganj was carried out for completing ‎the ‎archaeological map of Iran and identifying the cultural sequence in this area.‎  In present paper, it's tried to determine the regional and trans- regional interactions of study ‎area ‎with its adjacent regions by analyzing and integrating the results of survey.‎  Based on the carried survey, 66 sites and traces were identified that chronologically ‎belonging to ‎periods of Paleolithic (2 cases), fifth millennium bc (2 cases), fourth millennium ‎bc (10 cases), ‎third millennium bc (27 cases), Historic periods(29 sites) and Islamic era (3 cases) ‎and Recent ‎century(2 cases.).‎ Morphologically and functionally, the Ancient sites can be divided to 8 types: 1-Wide multi-‎‎ ‎functional sites 2- Historical Crain burials 3- Ancient tepes 4- Metallurgy sites 5- religion ‎buildings ‎‎6- fortresses 7- Rock engravings 8- Ancient sites with small cultural domination.‎  Based on geographical location, all of above sites situated on two areas as highland zone ‎and ‎plain.‎
  Finally, by analyzing of preliminary results of present study area and its adjacent area at ‎northern ‎highlands of Persian gulf, Baluchistan (Bampur) ,Halilroud basin (Jiroft) and Soghan valley) we can consider the study area as a intermediation for connection of mentioned areas in prehistoric and historical periods.‎
Qal’eh Ganj is located on the mostsouthern place of Kerman province. Chāh-e Khodādād is one of two districts of the present Qal’eh Ganj County, on the border of Sistan & Balouchestan and Hormozgan (Figure 1).
In 2016, the first season of archaeological survey and reconnaissance of town of Qal’eh Ganj has been carried out as a part of the Iranian National Archaeological Map Project in which the authors tried to clarify the cultural status of the region in different periods in Chāh-e Khodādād District (Mortezayi & Anjomrouz, 2017).
In addition to the purposes as mentioned above, the present research attempts to analyze and compound the results of this research and to discern regional and trans-regional connections and interactions with the neighboring areas.
This region has a strategic situation because it lies at the trijunction of three significant culturalgeographical zones in the southeast of Iran (Mokrān shores, the Persian Gulf shores and Halīlrūd Rūd (Halīl River) basin (Figure 1).
This survey resulted in the discovery of 66 archaeological localities dating from Palaeolithic to Islamic periods. The sites as mentioned earlier which are morphologically influenced by the geographical factors of their places can be categorized into two different types: plain areas and highlands (foothill and mountainous areas).
The first season of archaeological survey and reconnaissance of town of Qal’eh Ganj has been carried out as a part of the Iranian National Archaeological Map Project in which the authors tried to clarify the cultural status of the region in different periods in Chāh-e Khodādād District (Mortezayi & Anjomrouz, 2017). The present research attempts to analyse and compound the results of this project and discern regional and trans-regional connections and interactions of this area with the neighbouring areas.
 Throughout historic and prehistoric period, how is assess the cultural connection of survey area with surrounded regions?
Based on geographical location of study area and archaeological document from surrounded area, we can assume survey area as an intermediation for cultural connection between Halilroud basins, Baluchistan and northen beach of Persian Gulf.
Based on the survey, 66 sites and properties have been identified and registered which belong to the Paleolithic (Figure 7 & 8; Table 1), 5th millennium BC (Figure 9; Table 1), 4th millennium BC (Figure 10 & 11; Table 1), 3rd millennium BC (Figure 12 & 13; Table 1), Historical period (Figure 15 & 16; Table 1), the Islamic period (Table 1) and the recent century (Table 1).
Considering the morphology and forms of the settlements, all of the recollected sites have been divided into eight types of sites including large compound sites, historical cemeteries, ancient tepes (mounds), archaeometallurgical sites, religious buildings, fortresses, petroglyphs and ancient sites with a few numbers of cultural materials.
The sites as mentioned earlier which are morphologically influenced by the geographical factors of their places can be categorized into two different types: plain areas and foothill and mountainous areas.
This survey which begins with an investigation on some cases dating back to the middle Paleolithic is in line with other similar researches, but it is the starting point of a series of studies in the area in question as well as in the southeast of Iran. The preliminary findings prove, at least, the noticeable potentials of the area under study for further Paleolithic researches.
New finds of Paleolithic period from survey area provide a base to develop Paleolithic research in southeastern Iran especially for asses this area in dispersal of human at southern corridor of Iran (Vahdati nasab et al, 2012).
Typology and dating of prehistoric sites (Table 2-4) along with their quantity an  dispersion of cultural materials indicates  potentiality  of survey area for appearance and development of third millennium bc occupations and probably  cities of this period on the margin of episodic rivers. Vicinity and interference of third millennium sites with chalcolithic occupations suggest fifth and forth millennium cultures for searching origins of Bronze Age occupations formation in same regain.
The analysis of the preliminary findings as well as other few investigations in the neighboring regions in the northern heights of the Persian Gulf (Podat, 2010) including the vast sites of the Bronze Age in the seasonal riversides of the sites under study, these findings can function as a bridge between basin of Jazmurian and the northern shores of the Persian Gulf.
Presence of special pottery of historical period, namord and londo in study area (Figures 15 & 16; Table 5), implies on intermediating role of southern Jazmurian between areas from Baluchistan to southern shores of Persian Gulf in Arabian Peninsula.
 

Abstract The Tabriz mint is one of the most significant mints from the Ilkhanid period. Since the Hulegu Khan era, Tabriz was officially recognised as the political centre of Ilkhanid rule. This decision, whether ideal or flawed, attracted an influx of artists, scholars, calligraphers, craftsmen, and architects from the vast territories of the Ilkhanid Empire—from Transoxiana to Asia Minor, the plains of Qipchaq and the Transcaucasus to the Mediterranean shores, and from the Persian Gulf to the Strait of Oman. During this time, Tabriz became a major financial, political, scientific, military, and social hub. Historical sources document that Tabriz reached a remarkable level of growth and distinction, with visitors—including tourists, foreign emissaries, and domestic ambassadors—providing vivid descriptions of the city in their accounts. The choice to establish Tabriz as the Ilkhanid political centre appears to have significantly boosted its importance as one of the largest and most prominent mints in Iran during this era, as evidenced by numismatic records. Tabriz’s role in minting underwent substantial changes, shaped by shifts across various historical periods, particularly its financial structure. The study of coins from this mint offers valuable insights into some obscure aspects of Iranian history during the Ilkhanid rule. This article examines Tabriz, one of the most influential mints of the Ilkhanid period, by highlighting its unique characteristics, features, and innovations. This paper addresses the question of how coins were minted in Tabriz in comparison to those from other Iranian mints and seeks to understand the factors behind Tabriz’s preeminence. Preliminary research suggests that Tabriz, as the Ilkhanid political centre, possessed the necessary conditions to become a major financial institution under the Ilkhanid administration. Following the progression of the Ilkhanid administration from nomadism to a more advanced and sophisticated one, the same development appeared in Tabriz. evolved correspondingly. Attracted a vast array of experts, talented artists, scientists, and craftsmen; fostering a dynamic professional environment that contributed to other Iranian cities in various areas of development. By the latter part of Ilkhanid rule in Iran, particularly during the reigns of Öljeitü and Abu Sa’id, Tabriz became a notable centre of cultural, economic, financial, architectural, artistic, and intellectual achievements. This included advancements in book illumination, painting, and coinage, largely for skilled and talented workers drawn from across the empire. This thesis, therefore, focuses on the unique characteristics of coins minted in Tabriz and explores the reasons for and implications of the Tabriz mint’s superiority over other mints within the Ilkhanid Empire.

Abstract Abstract
Fortresses are a type of architectural structure that, due to their enclosed nature, historically ensured the security of the human communities residing within them. While security was the primary factor for the establishment of fortresses, the evolving dynamics of human societies gradually influenced their character, transforming them into tangible expressions or manifestations of the prevailing sociopolitical conditions of their time. With the emergence of centralized authorities and governments, fortresses became the residences of political and military elites and, depending on their specific functions, were responsible for the administration and oversight of parts of the surrounding community. In 2020, an archaeological survey was conducted in the two counties of Jovein and Joghatay, located in the northwestern part of Razavi Khorasan Province. This fieldwork led to the identification of sixteen fortresses and hillforts that had not been previously documented or studied. This research employs a descriptive-analytical approach to address questions concerning the typology of fortresses, the role of landscape in determining their function, and, ultimately, their social status. In addition to field investigations and comprehensive documentation of architectural evidence and surface finds, interdisciplinary methods such as remote sensing and environmental monitoring using drones were employed. Archival research was also carried out, utilizing historical and architectural sources relevant to the subject. The results of this study include the identification and characterization of four distinct types of plain fortresses and two types of mountain fortresses in the region. Each type exhibits unique morphological features, functions, and social roles within its historical context. Chronologically, these fortresses belong to the Islamic period, spanning from the Ilkhanid to the Qajar eras.
Keywords:  Mountain and Plain Fortresses, Typology, Function, Jovein and Joghatay, Islamic Period.
 
1. Introduction
Fortifications are enclosed structures with towers and ramparts, primarily constructed for security purposes, and they exhibit considerable functional and structural diversity. Their study illuminates the trajectory of defensive architecture and its interrelation with environmental, political, and social conditions. The typology of fortifications is based on geographical location, scale, spatial organization, and architectural features, reflecting their primary functions. The presence of fortifications in Iran can be traced back to prehistoric times, with examples identified at Godin and the fortified building at Shahr-i Sokhta (Schmidt, 1937; Young, 1969). With the formation of states and the development of interregional exchange networks, the need to defend cities and settlements increased, and the construction of towers and ramparts emerged as a key strategy for ensuring security. This architectural tradition was particularly significant in Khorasan, which served both as a major east–west trade corridor and as the first defensive frontier against incursions from northern and eastern groups. The region faced persistent threats from the Achaemenid period through the later centuries, including invasions by the Saka, Hephthalites, Turks, Mongols, and Turkmens (Pīrbariān, 2002: 59; Altheim, 2009: 69–70; Shipman, 2004: 45–46; Schindler, 1977: 184).
The main objective of this study is to identify, classify, and analyze the fundamental factors influencing the construction of fortifications and fortified mounds (tepe-qal‘ehs) in the Jovein and Joghatay plains, as well as to investigate their social functions and roles. The key research questions addressed are: How can fortifications be categorized according to their natural setting? And what were their social roles and functions within the region?
The study area encompasses the northwestern part of Razavi Khorasan Province, specifically the Jovein and Joghatay counties. These two counties form a unified geographical zone, measuring approximately 120 km in length and 30 km in width, with an average elevation of 1,075 m. Archaeological surveys indicate that human settlement in this region dates back to the Paleolithic period and continued throughout the historical and Islamic periods (Mirzaye & Sadraei, 2024; Mirzaye, 2020). This research employs an archaeological approach and is designed as a descriptive–analytical study, integrating field surveys, documentation, and archival analysis. Fieldwork involved the recording of archaeological remains, precise measurements, mapping, 3D scanning, and the use of advanced technologies such as satellite imagery, drones, and GIS software for reconstructing site layouts. These datasets facilitated a detailed analysis of the location, size, spatial organization, and architectural features of the fortifications. The archival research component included the study of archaeological reports, historical and social sources, architectural studies, and cultural landscape research. This phase provided insights into the historical background of fortifications, their social and military interactions, and their role in securing the region. Ultimately, the integration of field and archival data enabled a comprehensive analysis of the typology, functions, and social significance of fortifications in the study area.
 
2. Analysis and discussion
In the Jovein and Joghatay plains, sixteen fortifications and fortified mounds were identified and examined. The selection of this study area was based on its historical significance, geopolitical importance, and accessibility for fieldwork. According to their geographical setting, the fortifications can be classified into two main groups: plain fortifications and mountain fortifications. The plain fortifications comprise ten sites, including Tapeh Kheshti, Aq-Qal‘eh, Azadvar, and Khodashah. Based on their spatial and architectural features, these can be further subdivided into three categories: a) Non-enclosed village fortifications: Examples include Zirabad, Khodashah, Narenj Tapeh, and Azadvar. Each site consisted of a central fortification, a residential quarter, a cemetery, and industrial areas, reflecting a complex social and hierarchical structure. b) Enclosed fortifications: The most prominent example is Aq-Qal‘eh, covering an area of 52 hectares. This site includes a fortification, a mosque, and settlement layers dating from the Ilkhanid to the Qajar periods. c) Isolated fortifications: These include Tapeh Moghul, Bisjird, Kohneh-Qal‘eh Nobāgh, and Tapeh Ebrahimabad. Tapeh Moghul, with its octagonal plan, outer rampart, and central citadel, is particularly noteworthy and likely served a primarily military function.
The mountain fortifications consist of sites such as Oqlān Qiz Qal‘eh, Qal‘eh Qārzi, Kohneh-Qal‘eh Abuchanari, Bahan, Shākh Sabr, and Shaykh. Oqlān Qiz Qal‘eh, with its elevated position and watchtowers, is a clear example of a military stronghold. The other sites in this group appear to have functioned mainly as emergency refuges during periods of social crisis.The peak of activity and utilization of these fortifications occurred during the Middle Islamic centuries, although some evidence indicates earlier phases of occupation. A comprehensive understanding of these fortifications and their associated settlements requires the simultaneous analysis of historical, geographical, and archaeological factors. Medieval geographical sources describe the Jovein plain primarily as a rural area, with Azadvar being the only urban center, administratively dependent on Nishapur (Ḥamavī, 2004: 112; Maqdisī, 2006: 465).
Among the plain fortifications, the sites of Azadvar, Khodashah, and Aq-Qal‘eh occupy a distinctive position due to their structural characteristics, spatial layout, and scale. These settlements typically consisted of two principal components: the citadel (arg or qal‘eh) and the residential quarter (shahrestān). In addition to towers and ramparts, some complexes also featured moats and concealed passageways. Such features reflect their role as centers of authority and administration. It appears that these centralized village-fortifications served as residences and operational bases for local rulers, military commanders, and administrative officials such as scribes, who were responsible for the political and social management of the region (Kirka et al., 2020: 8–9).
The isolated fortifications provide limited evidence of socio-economic activities, whereas the mountain fortifications primarily served defensive and refuge functions. In response to insecurity, local communities adopted two strategies: 1. settling in proximity to ruling centers; 2. migrating to southern mountainous areas, which, despite being less favorable for permanent habitation, offered security. Within this framework, Oqlān Qiz Qal‘eh played a key role in protecting local routes and nearby villages, while Tapeh Moghul likely functioned as a command center during periods of potential Mongol incursions
 
3. Conclusion
The study of fortifications in the Jovein and Joghatay plains demonstrates that from the Ilkhanid to the Qajar periods, these settlements were adaptive responses to security and environmental challenges. The plain fortifications functioned as centers of habitation and economic administration, typically characterized by a citadel located in the southern section and residential quarters to the north, thereby exerting control over surrounding villages. In contrast, isolated fortifications and certain complexes provide little evidence of socio-economic activity, and their internal organization remains poorly understood. Mountain fortifications were primarily constructed for defensive and refuge purposes; examples such as Oqlān Qiz Qal‘eh played a strategic role in securing caravan routes and overseeing nearby settlements.

Abstract Recent archaeological research at Tepe Hissar, located in the northeast of the Central Iranian Plateau, has provided concrete evidence for the presence of the Proto-Elamite phenomenon at this site. The main focus of this study is a comparative analysis of the gray ware pottery and the cylinder seals recovered from the layers of the Hissar II period (second half of the fourth millennium BCE), with well-known samples from other Proto-Elamite sites. The findings indicate that the gray wares of Hissar, in terms of clay composition, firing technique, form, and decorations, display clear similarities with the standard Proto-Elamite examples from Tepe Sofalin, Pishva. The analysis of the Hissar cylinder seals—regarding material, manufacturing techniques, and iconography—reflects the cultural connections of Hissar with southwestern Iran and its role in the exchange and artistic networks of the Proto-Elamite era. This body of evidence positions Tepe Hissar not merely as a point of contact, but as an active and innovative link in the cultural interactions of the late fourth millennium BCE, highlighting the need to reconsider prevailing models for the transmission of Proto-Elamite culture to northeastern regions. Based on ceramic and seal data, Tepe Hissar should be viewed not as a passive intermediary, but as an active agent in the communication networks and cultural developments of the Proto-Elamite period in northeastern Iran—a site that, through the selection and reinterpretation of imported and local elements, contributed to the formation of distinctive cultural traditions.

Abstract Achaemenid art is royal Courtly art which has been influenced by subordinate nations arts. The different nations like Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Anatolian. As it is clear that Achaemenid art as a magnificent court art was a modest imitation of the another nations art But they did not ever blindly imitate others' art,but they transformed what they took from others and changed into Iranian art;and becouse of that, the coordination and harmony that was seen in the Achaemenid style,  was the localization of the artistic element of other nations.This paper trying to discuss, analyze and compare of human proportions of statues and reliefs as one of the most important artificial evidence of Achaemenid dynasty. Proportion also is visible in nature. Anatomical proportion is a mathematical concept which that important in visual arts. The formula of a golden division in Proportion is also visible at the nature and human artifacts such as statues and monuments. In this study, the influences of the Achaemenid art from subordinate nation's arts have been considered as a source of proportions in this period. The results indicate that human proportions in Achaemenid art has been Influenced by art and artistic proportions rules of Mesopotamia, Greece and specially Egypt. It is noted that highest point of Achaemenid art in terms of use principles Proportion in architecture and sculpture is very similar to the Egyptian art.

Abstract Despite the valuable evidences in the northwestern Iran (Ardebil province) archaeology of this region is now remains unknown and its chronological order is located on the basis of the excavations carried out in the Urmia lake basin. Since French archaeologist De Morgan in early 20th century presented a brief report of excavations in pre-historic cemeteries around Namin, no other archaeological researches have been presented on the archaeology of this region and there is no clear understanding of the status of different historic and pre-historic periods. The first part of archaeological surveys of Namin was done in an area of about 1100 square kilometers in the eastern part of the plateau of Azerbaijan in 2015, during which 175 historical sites were identified. The results of fieldwork shows the presence of specific settlement patterns in Bronze and Iron Age by focusing on citadels and existence of vast cemeteries mostly containing burial of megalithic forms. In the study area apart from historical sites a number of Islamic sites also were identified.

Abstract Dargaz County is located in northeastern Iranian Plateau, near to borders of Turkmenistan. Its location so close to Turkmenistan and ancient Nisa, as the first homeland capital of the Parthians, shows the importance of this area in the Iranian history. Discovery of 85 sites dating to the Parthian period in this plain is a testimony to this importance. In this paper, the distribution of the sites has been discussed considering the impact of environmental elements. Settlements of this area have been measured by the distribution of its surface finds. Taking into account of environmental data and the site size, three clusters of sites have been proposed for the Parthian sites of Dargaz. The sites of Toghi and Shahr Tepe are the central sites of two clusters of A and B, respectively. The cluster C represents those sites that have been distributed on the foothills and on the plain as well. Some of these sites are cemeteries of nomadic sector of the Parthian population of the time.

Abstract In recent years, two significant historical sites, Tepe Forodgah and Sangtarashan have been excavated in Khorramabad. Bronze objects explored from both sites exhibit an interesting feature of metal production in terms of shapes and techniques used. Tepe Forodgah was excavated in 2014 and Sangtarashan was excavated during six seasons since 2003. Tepe Forodgah yielded few bronze objects but a large number of bronze objects were obtained from Sangtarashan. In this research, two bronze objects were selected from each historical site and results of the analysis were analyzed and compared concerning their chronological orders. In this research, type of alloy, manufacturing technique, elements and chemical compounds of samples were studied by Scanning Electron Microscopy equipped with Elemental Analysis, Metallography, Computed Tomography and X-Ray Radiography. According to the results, the alloy used in all the objects was known to be bronze and based on the microstructure of the objects, hammering and annealing used in manufacturing technique.

Abstract Considering the boom in the agricultural productions in the plains of Susiana, it seems that the proto-Elamite economic system is similar to that of feudal societies. In such a system, chiefdom organization and religious power had maintained a large part of capital resources such as land and water. But there have been evidence indicated that the exploitation of these resources have been awarded to other peoples. At the beginning of the Proto- Elamite texts some signs are visible but they may not convey a specific meaning, most researchers describe them to have been symbols for the economic enterprises. Firms that were related are partly to the system of production, distribution, service and trading systems. Some economic texts contained documentary signs indicating that economic activity is evidence and signs might be implemented by the above mentioned financial authorities. This may parallel with governmental institutions of Proto- Elamite, but as were witnessed from the texts in the beginning of this period these institutions coordinated the economy of the society. In this paper, the economic texts of Proto-Elamite on the tablets were studied and the evidence of corporation’s activity is investigated by providing some related examples.

Abstract In archaeological studies of the region of Southwest Asia, during the period from the late fourth millennium BC to the beginning of the Iron Age (second half of the second millennium BC), phenomena such as the growth of settlements in terms of area and population, the emergence of early cities, Trans-regional trade, the formation of government institutions, the emergence and spread of gray and black pottery, extensive changes in technology and the dramatic development of the smelting industry and the use of bronze tools were identified. In this process, an extensive communication network aimed at controlling trade routes and access to raw materials across the plateau by land and sea connected many areas. Economically, in this era, trans-regional trade was established, and communities were connected thousands of miles away from home to obtain the resources they needed. Bronze Age cultures are well known in the most part of Iran but Khorasan is an except and the data are rare and insufficient. Moreover, information about chronology, and distribution of sites during different periods of prehistoric times in different parts of them is very limited. In this research, 38 sites from the Bronze Age period have been studied. These sites were identified in the form of archaeological surveys of the Upper and Middle Atrak during the last decade. This study was done using descriptive-analytic method. For data analysis, GIS and SPSS software, and Correlation and Cluster analysis methods were used. Settlement pattern in the Upper and Middle Atrak basin is similar. It consists of two-level models with large site and a number of small sites around it. The results of this study indicate that due to the lack of water resources in the region, access to the constant water resources is the most important factor in shaping the Bronze age Settlemens. Most sites are also formed during the Early Bronze Age, and we are faced a decrease in the number of sites in the Middle and Late Bronze Age.

Abstract Iran's eastern borders have been constantly affected by various events, especially the arrival of different ethnic groups in Central Asia in the form of migration or invasion. However, ancient sources provide researchers with little knowledge of such events, and this little information is specific to incidents that were widely considered a threat to the central government of Iran. Therefore, written sources do not answer the questions of archaeologists on political, military, various urban planning, and cultural interactions of Iran with its eastern neighbors. On the other hand, extensive and continuous field research that purposefully answers such questions has been limited and scattered. One of these researches is the purposeful activities that have been carried out in the middle part of the Kopet Dag -Aladagh corridor in the north of Khorasan in the last decade; and this has become the basis for the formation of other research by other researchers in this geographical area (albeit limited). "Tas Tape" is one of the sites in the northeast of Iran. Its location is in the middle part of the Kopet Dag -Aladagh corridor and the east of Quchan city. According to the results of two seasons of field research, this site is one of the important sites of the Parthian period that has been settled until the Sassanid period. Around Tas Tape, a large settlement site was identified during additional studies after archeological surveys in Quchan city. The existence of questions about the synchronicity of the settlement with the fort hill, how the two parts are related to each other, and the continuation of life until the Sassanid period led to the definition of a long-term research project to answer the questions and better understand this ancient monument. This article is based on the research conducted in the first season of this site, which includes reviewing the area of the site, geomagnetic surveys, and sounding for delimitation of the Tas Tape site. The results of this season include the identification of a site from the Parthian period with an area of 80 hectares, which consists of two parts: a) Fort mound b) Unenclosed settlement. According to preliminary results, the settlement probably was only in the Parthian period, but the fort hill was used until the Sassanid period. The Clinky pottery is the most significant cultural find on this site in terms of chronology and distribution of this type of pottery. The location of this site is also very remarkable because it is the link of the north of Kopet Dag sites, including Nisa, into the Iranian plateau.

Abstract Geographic and environmental attributes of a given region assume a pivotal role in the formation and persistence of human settlements. Nature confers possibilities and resources on human, who, as per his understanding of them, employs them in pursuit of his goals, hence the rise of human–nature interaction. The frequency of and the ways in which human settlements are established and the type of functions they serve with regard to environmental characteristics give rise to the ecology, which aims to grasp the scope of the interrelationships between humans and the environment. The present paper examines the scope of human-environment interactions in the Parthian period over the geographic extent of ​​the central part of the Kopeh dagh-Aladagh corridor.
The paper seeks to ascertain the local environment’s influence on the formation and evolution of Parthian settlements and to find out the pertinent settlement patterns in northern Khorasan.
Given the environmental potentialities, what were the Parthians’ criteria for site location when establishing their settlements? How did these priorities affect the distribution of sites and their settlement pattern in the study area?  The present paper represents a multifaceted research drawing upon archaeological survey, ecological studies, information processing in GIS, examining the relationships between natural and cultural variables and their impact on the formation of the contemporaneous settlements, and finally archaeological analysis.  The study adopts an ecological and economical approach. In this context, ecological data on the relation between soil type, geology, flora, fauna, and water table or “biosorption analysis” have been used. Processual archaeologists use ecological systems as their basic model for observing the adaptive transformations humans in response to environmental circumstances as even small environmental alterations will have the potential to affect cultural structures.
The Kopeh dagh-Aladagh corridor stretches from Garmab in western North Khorasan to the Mashhad plain to the east. For the purposes of this study, the corridor is divided into the following three separate parts based on geographic features that someway affect cultural aspects: a) Western part: extending from the beginning of the village of Garmab to the border of Shirvan County (Reza Abad), this part is characterized by a mountainous terrain with narrow passes such as Badranlu; b) Central part: in this part, defined by the beginning of Shirvan County (Reza Abad) and the end of Quchan County, the plains grow wider as the mountains begin to sit back; c) Eastern part: Chenaran County and the Mashhad plain mark the extreme boundaries of this part. The focus of the present work is on the central corridor, viz. the stretch delineated by the counties of Shirvan, Farooj and Quchan (Figure: 1). Geographically, the study area encompasses the structural valley of Atrak-Kashafrud, an expanse that is bounded by the mountains of Kopeh Dagh/Hezar Masjed to the north and the Aladagh/Binalud mountains to the south (Figure:2). This plain geomorphological unit exhibits a fairly wide and flat landform, and is principally affected by the sedimentary process of the flowing water bodies of the Kashafrud and Atrak rivers and their tributaries. Geomorphology, it consists of three main units of plain, foothills, and mountains. Its northern and southern sectors are mountainous, its slopes are characterized by foothills, and its central part consists of plain. Indeed, the mountainous quarters comprise small, narrow intermontane plains, which fall in the plain sub-class. The regional heights follow the northwest-southeast trend dictated by the general orientation of the Kopeh dagh zone. The Atrak and Kashafrud rivers rise from the regional mountains, forming two drainage basins. The archeological survey of the concerned area recorded more than 500 archaeological mounds and sites spanning the Chalcolithic to the Islamic period. Based on a comparative analysis of the surface pottery, 20 Parthian sites are distinguishable. It is notable that due to the lack of adequate knowledge of common Parthian pottery forms in the region, due caution has been exercised in the identification of these sites. These Parthian sites are divided between 16 examples lying in the northern half of the plain on the southern slopes of Kopeh dagh/Hezar Masjed and 4 instances that occur in the southern half on the northern slopes of Aladagh. As stated, a main objective of this study is to pin down the influential factors of the region's ecology in the formation of Parthian sites and their distribution in the geographic setting of the central Kopeh dagh-Aladagh corridor. To this end, such components as geology, altitude, slope gradient and aspect, climate, water resources and soil are explored. Finally, the results of the study reveal a close and direct correlation between the site location and the environmental factors (Figures: 3-10). The central Kopeh dagh/Hezar Masjed corridor on the north and Aladagh/Binalud on the south form an upland district hemmed in by mountains. Due to its mountain geomorphology, the area is generally dominated by cold, dry climate. In mountainous regions, slopes and valleys generally offer more advantageous conditions for settlement as the altitude variable prompts reduced temperature and increased humidity. Dropped temperature in warm seasons results in lowered evaporation of water resources, making water resources more easily accessible throughout the year. The choice of appropriate altitude as an influential factor in human activities has thus led to the concentration of Parthian settlements on the slopes dominating the plain. Choosing slopes provided the local populations with access to montane pastures, but also enabled them to exploit alluvial and fertile plains. The same strategy is still operative in the region, where, save for the cities that lie in the plain, rural settlements mostly sit on the slopes overlooking the plain. The distribution of the sites in reference to the slope gradient and aspect shows that, with the exception of F 0026, the Parthian sites lie in proper points of terrain ruggedness and slope gradient spectra, and their dominant slope aspect indicates the maximum use of solar heat in this cold region, with advantageous impacts on agricultural production and pastures. Given their location on slopes, the hitherto identified Parthian sites mostly occur on the spring-fed influent streams that flow into the Atrak, with no instances recognized along the latter. In light of the results from environmental studies, the altitude, slope gradient, easy access to water resources, and fertile soil served as the foremost factors governing the distribution of Parthian sites in the region as they were directly linked with subsistence. It is notable that while our environmental studies drew on the present-day landscape, the survey of the study area produced about 500 sites dating between the Chalcolithic to the Islamic period, and presence of this huge number of sites over this protracted timespan testifies to the fact that advantageous environmental conditions did prevail in the past.
 

Abstract Abstract
Due to its geographical location, climatic characteristics, and historical significance, Mazandaran Province has consistently played a pivotal role in Iran’s political, economic, and cultural developments. Natural barriers such as the Alborz Mountain range and the emergence of semi-independent local rulers were among the factors that limited communication routes between the Iranian plateau and Mazandaran prior to the Safavid era. A fundamental transformation in the development of mountainous and lowland roads in Mazandaran occurred during the Safavid period, particularly under Shah Abbas I (r. 995–1038 AH), with the construction of the “Shah Abbasi Roads.” In the Qajar era, especially during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah (r. 1264–1313 AH), the region saw further road expansion under the designation of “Naser al-Din Shahi Roads,” owing to its crucial role in supplying food to the capital and facilitating trade with Russia. Despite the importance of Mazandaran’s historical roads and their associated structures, limited archaeological research has been conducted in this field, leaving many questions unanswered regarding the influence of geography and climate on road formation, their diverse functions, and the alignment of modern roads with historical routes. The present study is fundamental in purpose and adopts a historical, descriptive-analytical approach in methodology. Data were collected through library research and archaeological fieldwork. By combining these methods, the study addresses certain ambiguities and analyzes the role of historical roads in the regional and national development of Mazandaran Province. To achieve this objective, twenty historical paved roads in Mazandaran were examined. Some of these roads, located in the lowlands, intermediate slopes, and highlands of the region, are identified and introduced for the first time in this research. The findings indicate that the roads under study—primarily dating back to the Safavid and Qajar periods—functioned as interregional or intraregional transportation routes during their time.
Keywords: Mazandaran, Historical Paved Roads, Shah Abbasi Roads, Naser Al-Din Shahi Roads, Archaeology of Roads.
 
1. Introduction
Mazandaran, a significant northern Iranian region, gained importance over the last five centuries due to its connections with the Safavid and Qajar capitals and its maritime border with Russia. Historically, the Alborz mountains acted as a barrier, often allowing semi-independent rule. From the Safavid era, especially under Shah Abbas I, the region’s economic and strategic value grew, leading to the construction of “Shah Abbasi Roads” like the Isfahan-Farahabad route. These roads revolutionized trade, including exports via the Caspian Sea, and served royal recreational purposes, allowing the Shah to access the lush landscapes for leisure activities and to promote the region’s allure as a travel destination.
During the Qajar period, Mazandaran was vital for supplying Tehran and facilitating trade with Russia. Road development was key for economic growth, even for supplying charcoal to the capital. Under Naser al-Din Shah, Iranian and foreign engineers built modern gravel roads, enhancing transportation networks and contributing to the integration of the region into a burgeoning national economy. The roads not only facilitated commerce but also cultural exchanges between various regions of Iran and neighboring countries.
The strategic importance of these routes was not uniformly consistent; it fluctuated according to the priorities of successive rulers and broader geopolitical shifts. During intervals of weak central authority, local khans often assumed responsibility for road maintenance, leveraging control over key passages to extract tolls and assert autonomy. Conversely, periods of strong state intervention—particularly under Shah Abbas I and later Naser al-Din Shah—saw the reassertion of imperial oversight, often accompanied by the introduction of new engineering methods and administrative reforms. This alternating rhythm of centralisation and local initiative left distinct material signatures on the roads themselves, visible in variations of pavement technique, bridge construction, and the siting of caravanserais. The Haraz and Chalus routes, for instance, preserve multiple phases of repair and realignment, each layer reflecting the political and technological circumstances of its time.
Moreover, these pathways often influenced local customs, allowing for the dissemination of not only goods but also ideas and cultural practices. Despite their importance, these historical roads have seen little archaeological study. This research aims to address this gap by investigating the existing routes and their historical significance, examining the materials, construction techniques, and how these roads adapted over time to changing political and social circumstances. Understanding these aspects can provide invaluable insights into the resilience and evolution of Mazandaran’s infrastructure and its role in connecting different facets of Iranian heritage.
 
2. Research Objectives and Questions
This study combines historical and archaeological data to analyze Mazandaran’s historical roads. It seeks to answer: Which identifiable paved roads from the Safavid and Qajar periods exist? What political and economic objectives did these governments pursue with road construction? To what extent do modern roads align with these historical routes?
 
3. Materials and Methods
This qualitative research used field studies (over 15 years, examining 20 historical roads), direct observation, and analysis of historical sources and maps. Data on road structure and associated buildings was collected, and a mortar sample was chemically analyzed.
 
4. Discussion
The development of roads in Mazandaran was a strategic priority during both the Safavid and Qajar eras, driven by economic and geopolitical necessities. In the Safavid period, after the Ottomans controlled western borders, the government transformed Mazandaran into a vital commercial hub for exporting goods to Eastern Europe via the Caspian Sea and Caucasus. Shah Abbas I specifically built a paved road from Isfahan to the Mazandaran coast to facilitate the trade of valuable commodities like silk, for which the region was a primary production center. Advanced construction techniques, including using charcoal layers to combat humidity, were employed to ensure the road’s durability.
During the Qajar era, particularly under Naser al-Din Shah, road construction in Mazandaran reached its peak. The Shah’s personal interest in the region for recreation was complemented by stronger economic and strategic motives. Mazandaran was a crucial supplier of food and resources to Tehran, especially during famines. Geopolitically, with Russia’s expansion in the Caucasus, modernizing the routes connecting Tehran to the Caspian Sea became essential for trade and security. Three main roads—Firuzkuh, Haraz, and the Chalus (Hezar Cham) route—were developed. The government employed foreign engineers like Gasteiger to survey and construct gravel carriage roads, a significant modernization from traditional paths. This focus on infrastructure, despite challenges like the threat of Russian incursion, fundamentally improved transport links, boosted trade with Russia, and integrated Mazandaran more closely with the capital.
 
5. Conclusion
Safavid and Qajar road-building in Mazandaran served multiple goals: facilitating trade, enabling royal access, improving control, and enhancing security. This study identified twenty historical roads. Safavid pavements were more orderly and wider, while Qajar ones were less meticulous. The oldest road dates to the Sassanian era.
During the Sassanian period, these routes were part of the empire’s broader network. Following the Arab conquest, local dynasties such as the Bavandids and Buyid maintained and adapted these roads, using them to assert autonomy and collect tolls. The Safavid revival under Shah Abbas I deliberately reoccupied many of these alignments, integrating them into a state-sponsored system of caravanserais and stone-paved causeways designed for heavy transport and rapid communication. By contrast, Qajar road-building suffered from chronic underfunding and decentralised administration, yet provincial governors often sponsored local repairs as acts of personal patronage, embedding their authority into the landscape. Several Qajar-era bridges and rest stations remain in use today, their fabric bearing witness to shifting technologies and persistent strategic concerns. This accumulated layering—Sassanian, medieval, Safavid, Qajar—imbues Mazandaran’s historic roads with exceptional stratigraphic depth.
These roads were vital for commerce and connectivity, playing a crucial role in the movement of goods, people, and ideas throughout history. They established trade routes that not only linked different regions but also allowed for cultural exchanges which enriched the area’s heritage. Today, many modern east-west highways overlay historical routes, while the main north-south historical roads often run parallel to modern ones. This layering of infrastructure reflects a continuum of human activity, but it also raises concerns as urban expansion threatens these heritage sites. Preserving these roads is not merely an act of conserving history; it is also a means of fostering local economies. The study concludes that these historical roads have significant potential for cultural and eco-tourism. Integrating local narratives and historical context into tourism experiences can deepen visitors’ appreciation of the region’s rich tapestry. Principled restoration and promotion could attract tourists, offering them unique experiences of the past while preserving local memory and identity. Moreover, by developing pathways that emphasize sustainable practices, the region could mitigate the negative impacts of mass tourism while encouraging responsible visitation. In turn, this could contribute to regional sustainable development and ensure that the stories these roads tell are not lost but rather celebrated for generations to come. Ultimately, thoughtful engagement with these historical treasures can facilitate a dialogue between the past and the present, enriching both local communities and visitors alike.

Abstract Visual evidences are considered to be the most important documents in history and especially in the history of Iranian architecture. There are different types of painting that they could be used importantly to retrieve many of historical as well as artistic issues. On the basis of Herat Painting School^, which have more realistic representation it is possible to retrieve architectural decoration of Timurid period. Accordingly, to reflect the architecture decoration in Persian miniatures of different miniature painting schools of Iran, Herat Miniature Painting School with an emphasis on Kamal Al-din Bihzad painting were selected and analyzed. Given the importance of this issue the present article tries to concentrate on the most characteristics of Timurid painting school. The main goal of this study is a detailed overview on Timurid architectural decoration portrayed by Behzad through comparing them with those of paintings which have worked on the monumental buildings.

Abstract The archaeological site of Moshkouyeh that nowadays called Moshkin tape is located in northern part of the Iranian plateau, between the two historical cities of Rey in the north and Saveh in the south. The two terms can be considered for the word of the Moshkouye: A) Moshkouye was a region where the hunting of gazelle and extraction of musk was carried out there. B) Moshkooy can be considered a kings palace or harem. By Searching in historical resources, it became clear that nowadays Moshkin Tape is the same as historical Moshkouye that was settlement in Khurasan Road. After reading the historical texts, the systematic survey of the site showed that pottery shards and pottery equipment could be the remains of an industrial city from the Seljuq Era. Archaeological excavation in 2008 indicated this small city has produced the pottery required by inhabitants of Rey and many villages in the political and cultural region of Rey during the 5th and 6th centuries after Hijrat. This paper analyzes the structure, function and chronology of excavated kilns. This aim has been achieved through the analyses and interpretation of ceramic along with ethnographic studies, historical resources and especially archaeological data which has been yielded from Moshkin tape survey and excavation.

Abstract A joint program by the University of Tehran and the University of Leicester carried out a first season of archaeological exploration of Zoroastrian societies in Maybod, Yazd province during May 2016 for two weeks. Historical archaeology is still in its infancy in Iran. Due to extensive modernization vast amounts of data have been lost and therefore most research into the recent past can be considered as salvage program.  The aim of this research is to explore some aspects of the social history and ritual activities of the last communities of Zoroastrian societies of Yazd province based on the analysis of architectural layout, archaeological survey of the contemporary villages, interview, and historical records. Here we represent the preliminary report of the survey results of Mazra’e Kalantar and Asr’ Abad villages. In this paper we have clarified the architectural patterns and the typology of buildings of Zoroastrian communities. We have analyzed two different buildings types of religious and domestic spaces of Mazra’e Kalantar and Asr’ Abad villages. The second part of this paper is focused on the ethnographic results in order to achieve a holistic understanding of life experience based on the historical knowledge of local people. 

Abstract According to the Zoroastrian religious teachings, and in order to prevent the contamination of the four sacred elements of water, soil, wind and fire, dead bodies should be put in an open area and on the top of mountains, should be consumed by carnivorous animals, and their bones should be buried in a specific place named Astodan (Ostekhandan). This method, which has been the most common burial tradition of Zoroastrians in the Islamic period, was carried out in the circular hypaethral structures built up on the top of mountains. These structures are called “Dakhma” and the mentioned ritual is called “Dakhmagozari.” Despite the research done on “Dakhmagozari” ritual and the “Zoroastrian Dakhma,” important questions about the historical background of this tradition and the history of the burial structures associated with it, and the evolution of the architectural features of the Zoroastrian Dakhma throughout the various historical periods still remain unanswered. So, the present research ties to answer these ambiguities by doing field studies and interpreting and analyzing the findings of these studies with a “historical approach.” According to the results obtained by referring to historical sources and archaeological evidence, the tradition of giving dead bodies to carnivorous animals, which has been a common burial tradition in Moqan since Achamenian periods, and using circular Dakhma, common throughout the Parthian-Sassanid period, have been popular among Iranian Zoroastrians. Following the mentioned trend during the Islamic period, the Dakhmagozari ritual and using circular Dakhmas have continued to exist up to the present time by going through changes in the way of performing the ceremonies and in the architectural components of the related burial structures.

Abstract One of the most important reasons for the formation of cities is their geographic location. Sometimes these particular geographic conditions themselves cause the city to be displaced or it’s obsolete or abandonment. In some cases, cities are destroyed by factors other than natural ones; these types of factors are directly related to humans. The historic city of Torshiz, based on historical sources, is one of the most important cities of the Islamic era in Khorasan, which changed its location by changing the cultural landscape of Torshiz province, changing the location that displaced the city from the western part to the eastern part. The cultural area of Torshiz includes Bardaskan, Khalil Abad and Kashmar in the southwest of Khorasan Razavi. Before the transfer of the historic city of Torshiz to the eastern part (the political area of current Kashmare city) around the middle of the 12th century AH, this city has been located in the present day of Bardaskan city area, and this is well traceable from historical sources. This research is aimed at analyzing historical data and analytical types of archaeological data, statistical models in the geographic information system and suggested written sources for the location of the historic city of Torshiz. The results of the research, based on the knowledge of written sources, archaeological data, and the help of the GIS, eventually revealed the historic site of Firoozabad has been shown as the city of Torshiz, obviously the archaeological excavations can enhance our information in this field.

Abstract We are justlfied in our study of  Iran’s historical period by the invisible and clear vestiges of the mysterious Parthian empire, which has piqued the interest of a lot of historians and intellectuals. Parthian history has been disproved in numerous dimensions such as political dimensions, social dimensions, and cultural dimensions using contemporary research based on Greek, Roman, Armenian,Syriac, Middle Persian, and Islamic sources, as well as archeological evidence. On the basis of ancient historical writings, it is now possible to recreate a portion of the Parthian Empire’s history. Chronicles, written in Syriac, are among the most important historical sources for reconstructing ancient Near Eastern history. These sources are especially vital for refining pre-Islamic Iran’s history, as it would be pointless to write the history of Iran during the Sassanid era without utilizing Syriac resources. With these contexts in mind,the goal of this paper is to follow the Parthian rulers’ history through a variety of sources. When all of the available Syriac chronicles are taken into account, it becomes clear that these sources were mostly neglected by all of the Parthian rulers, and that no names or addresses can be located in them. At first glance, the absence of Parthian kings, history in Syriac sources suggests that there is no need to study these sources in relation to Parthian history; however, the opinion of this essay is that such a void to depict forgetting of the Parthian kings was not accidental in the Syriac sources, but rather was influenced by the tradition of Iranian historiography in the Sassanid (Sassanian)epoch,and since then the historical has been influenced by.