Journal of Archaeological Studies

Abstract Coin and coining as civilization indices have undergone many changes and development. It has been argued that the economic and political positions of states have always affected not only the physical shapes of a coin but its economic values within the current trade systems. To understand the changes were seen in the coining during the different time periods several political social, economic, cultural and even military issues should be considered. Thus to survey coining trend in the Greek state of Bactria, we have considered different aspects of changes and development according to the Emergence and Decline of Civilizations Theory with a special reference to Ibn Khaldoon and Toynbee theories. The focus of this paper is process of coining in the Greek state of Bactria and it also attempts to clarify some of the historical ambiguities and technological complications which occurred in course of coining.      

Abstract Ideology and worldview of societies have noticeable impact on artistic arrays formation.  In Islamic Art, Plant motifs have a special place and they have a large part of the ornamentation. Most of these motifs have symbolic meanings in religious places. Ancient Iranian considered these motifs to be mythological and sacred. These motifs have continued in the Islamic period. Āl-e Būya rise to power alongside Islamic-Shiite ideas witnesses the rise and fall of Sassanian thought in the art of this period. The artwork created in this context reflects the beliefs of the pre-culture era which have become symbolic. Cognitive elements that have formed these insights could be identified by using the iconology method and social study in researches at the same time. The research study seeks to express the concepts hidden in the plant motifs used in the art of the Āl-e Būya era, and the influence of the pre-Islamic thought and art to identify the religious beliefs of this period. The main question of the research is about the quiddity and essence of technical and visual similarities and differences of floral images in the art of early Islam and pre-Islamic art. The question are as follows: what are the most important motifs and subjects transferred from the paintings of the Sassanid period to the architectural works of Āl-e Būya mosque? What factors have led to the transfer of symbols from the Sassanid period to the Āl-e Būya era? The aim of this research is to study and represent Iranian symbols in the emergence of motifs and their application in Islamic art. This article has been done by Descriptive-analytical with a semiotic approach has examined the process of the formation of Islamic motifs. The results indicate that the motifs used in the ornamentation of the Islamic period in Āl-e Būya mosques are influenced by the role of the Sassanid themes so that we can see Iranian attitudes and beliefs in the formation of Plant-Islamic paintings of these mosques. Along with this influence, the formation of Islamic culture has created abstract motifs by a Muslim artist.

Abstract During last few years, three seasons of excavations at the Ultan Qalasi, one season of stratigraphy in Nadir tepesi and a short season of survey in Mughan Steppe enriched our knowledge about the ancient landscape of the area. The Mughan Steppe is a geographically diverse region in the northwestern corner of the Islamic Republic of Iran, defined at the north by the Aras (Araxes) River and including the broad plain to its south as well as the foothills east of the Qara Su river leading up to Mount Sabalan in the Ardebil region. Since the closure of the Russian-Iranian frontier in 1884, the southwestern third of the plain falls within Iran and the northeastern two thirds are within the Republic of Azerbaijan. Since the early 18th century it has hosted the winter camps of the Shahsevan tribal confederacy, who migrated annually between pastures in Mughan and on the slopes of Mount Sabalan.
Already by the time of Shapur I, Mughan was known as Balasagan and was incorporated within the Sassanian Empire. Epigraphic documentation for settlement in Mughan in the Sassanian era is rather sparse. But archaeological surveys in western Mughan Steppe and eastern Mughan and Mil Steppe in Azerbaijan show that there are lots of Sassanian sites, mostly of the fortified type along ancient canals. These evidences indicate intensive land use by the Sassanian state. Previously, large and intensive land use with irrigation canals by Sassanians have been studied in Diyala, southern Mesopotamia and Khuzistan. The Mughan and Mil Steppes present another Sassanian landscape, in this case on the northwestern frontier. The collapse of the intensive Sassanian irrigation system created a void on the steppe which was eventually filled by pastoral nomadic groups.

Abstract Artifacts recovered from the Bam surface survey and Tal Atashi excavations, as well as Kerman's discoveries, have sometimes been compared to the Neolithic industries of Balochistan, Pakistan, and have sometimes been described as having local characteristics. In this article, we analyze the artifacts mentioned with the samples found in the South Zagros according to the three variables of raw material, technology and typology. The ancient sites of the South Lut and the South Zagros have followed the same pattern in choosing the type of raw material and how to access it, from the beginning of the Neolithic (aceramic) to the pottery Neolithic. The raw materials were generally local. According to studies, chert and flint were the most important and andesite, sandstone and limestone were the least used raw materials. Bullet cores have been documented in most areas. These cores are few at Tal Atashi, Darestan and Ashkaft Haji Bahrami (Aceramic Neolithic), but at Rahmatabad, Mushki and Hormangan they are relatively numerous. Bullet cores became insignificant from the middle of the Mushki Period, and their numbers declined during the Jari Period. The frequency of geometrics in the Fars region, from the beginning of the Neolithic to the Jari period, has fluctuations in shapes such as backed crescent and trapezoid. Crescent geometrics were one of the most important tools at Tepe Yahya and Tal Atashi across all phases of Neolithic in Fars province. The production process of sickle blades in Yahya was increasing whereas at Tal Atashi, it decreased over the same interval. The frequency of these tools was high at Rahmatabad, and low during the Mushki and Jari periods. This trend may be related to the technological developments of stone artifacts and changes in the type of economy during the Neolithic.

Abstract The Hamadan-Bahar Plain has been one of the most important center for human societies in the various periods, especially in the Islamic Period. The archaeological explorations of this plain was done in the years of 2006 and 2009. But for study and analyze the settlement pattern the Islamic Period and for answer to questions such as, what have been the most important factors for the formation of Islamic Period sites in the Hamedan Plain? And the main volume of Islamic settlements in the Hamedan Plain were have been related to which century of the Islamic period? this plain was reviewed in the year of 2015. The main purpose of this review is to identify the settlement patterns of Islamic sites in the Hamedan plain based on the review of identified sites. In this study, which was conducted in the field study and in the form of a marching, 14 sites were reviewed and 2 newly sites were discovered in the study area. In order to better understand the settlement patterns, spatial information of sites was entered in the GIS and then analyzed. Due to the importance of the position of pottery data in the relative chronology of a region, after studying the typology of pottery and recognizing the types of special pottery products, it was found that the Islamic sites of Hamedan Plain are scattered based on two factors: first fertile lands and second caravan routes. The presence of defensive features in some of the sites which adjacent to the caravan routes indicates the importance of this issue in the distribution of sites. In addition, the influence of significant sites such as Hegmataneh site as the central settlement of this plain in the Islamic period has been effective on a number of sites around it.
The lowlands, north of the Alvand Mountain is one of the middle plain in the central Zagros Mountain which in the past was known as Hamedan Plain and today is known as Hamedan-Bahar Plain. (Figure 1). Archaeological studies show that the Hamedan-Bahar Plain with about 880 square kilometers has been one of the most important centers for the establishment of human societies in the prehistoric and historical periods. Studies on prehistoric and historical sites have clarified the course of human cultures of this plain during that periods, However, the lack of sufficient attention to the sites of the Islamic period and the findings related to this period have left many archeological angles of this period unknown. The archaeological explorations of this plain has been done in the years of 2006 and 2009. (Mohammadifar and Motarjem, 2006; Balmaky and Motarjem, 2009). During these studies, a large number of discovered sites have been introduced as sites of the Islamic period. The Intended plain in the form of a master's thesis, was reviewed in form of field study in the summer of 2015 for the aim of studying and analyzing the settlement patterns of the Islamic sites (in the time period from the beginning of the Islamic period to the end of the Safavid period) and to answer the questions such as; what have been the most important factors for formation of the Islamic Period sites in the Hamedan Plain? And the main volume of Islamic settlements in the Hamedan Plain were have been related to which century of the Islamic period?
Due to insufficient attention to the artifacts and findings of the Islamic period, especially pottery in the surveys of previous years, out of about 50 identified sites, that were introduced as Islamic sites, only 14 sites had cultural artifacts belong to this period. During this review, two other newly Islamic sites discovered and a total of 16 sites were introduced as sites of the Islamic period. for better understand the settlement patterns, spatial information of sites such as; Geographical location, geological features, altitude, shape, area, access to water resources, access to the routes, etc. were entered in the GIS and then analyzed. Based on these studies, the Islamic sites of Hamedan-Bahar plain were divided into six groups (Figure 2). The first and second groups are related to sites that have been completely destroyed, due to the invasion of agricultural lands or relatively large amount of residential area, and very little evidence of these sites remains today. The third group are the sites, that are less than 10 meters high and less than one-hectare area. The next group is related to sites, that are more than 10 meters high and their areas are less than one-hectare. The sites of this group, like the previous group, do not have a clear and orderly shape. The fifth group is related to sites which have more than 10 meters high and have an area of more than one-hectare to 10 hectares. The shape of this group of sites is geometrically regular, such as squares and rectangles (Figure 7). In the survey of these sites the evidence of defensive fortifications has been seen. The last group is related to sites, that are more than 10 meters high and more than 10 hectares in area. (Table 1). The only settlement of this group is the Hegmataneh/Hamedan Mound, with an area of more than 34 hectares which is considered as the settlement center of the plain. The studies have shown that the sites of groups three and four, around 75% of the total identified sites, dedicated to themselves which are located in the area with very fertile land and often located next to a site with an area of more than one hectare and there are specific defense structures. (Figure 3 and 4). These sites are most likely belong to very small villages that are directly related to the surrounding agricultural lands to be affected by large sites that have a defensive structure. The sites with a defense structure, which are often more than one hectare, are located next to the entrance of caravan routes into the plain. (Figure 7). The existence of sites with defense structures inside the plain, in addition to emphasizing the importance of the transit position of the region, has also shown the existence of insecurity. Based on the analysis of spatial information, the Islamic sites of the Hamadan-Bahar plain are scattered based on two factors: fertile lands and caravan routes and the presence of defensive features in some of the settlements along the caravan routes, shows the importance of this issue in the distribution of sites. The collected pottery was carefully analyzed and their typological studies were carried out with well-known centers sites of the Islamic period.
During the study more than 20 types of pottery were identified (Table 2). The discovery of a large amount of evidence of the production of pottery, welding furnaces and metal and glass ornaments of the Islamic period in the Zino-abad shows that this site and Hegmataneh/Hamedan were used as an industrial site in the Islamic period and most probably their products were exported to other sites. Existence of similar species of pottery from large known pottery centers such as the Sultanabad and Soltanieh with local products of the plain, most probably the pottery of these centers transported to the Hamedan region through known routes. According to the pottery data, all the Islamic sites studied have several settlement periods. It seems that the arrival of the Arabs in this region did not have much effect on the continuity of settlement, because the first centuries of the Islamic pottery was found in almost all the studied sites. More than 56% of the sites were inhabited between the 4th and 7th centuries AH. It seems that the region from the beginning of the fourth century AH with the rise of local governments such as the Buyid dynasty and especially from the second half of the fourth century during the Seljuk period, the goal of many economic reforms were to provide livelihood. The importance of the region in this period is such that Hamedan has been chosen as the capital for several years since the Seljuk period. After this period, despite devastating the Mongol invasions of this region, about 62% of the plains were inhabited. It seems that in this period, despite the negative effects of the Mongol invasions, due to the presence of high-ranking people, life in the region has flourished. With the savage invasions of the Timurid period and the conflicts of the Aq Qoyunlu and Kara Koyunlu dynasty in this region between the early 8th century and the early 10th century AH, many settlements were reduced to less than 19%. During this period many of the settlements that flourished in the previous period were abandoned forever. This trend is also seen with less intensity in the Safavid period. In this period, despite the relative attention to the Hamedan and possibly the surrounding areas, the settlement patterns of the plain do not change much compared to the previous period

Abstract By selecting northwestern Iran as the early capital of Ilkhanid dynasty, Mongol rulers governed this area for about one century; this would have been the official route of administration and communication between Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, northeastern China, and Iran. Although the period of 1256-1335 is seen as the era of cultural interventions from Mongolia and Inner Mongolia into the northwestern Iran (Moradi and Omrani 2020), the architectural influences during Mongols' dominion has been less considered by the scholars. In this way, recent archaeological developments related to these regions have begun to shed new lights on recognizing spatial relations and the applications of Ilkhanid sites in northwestern Iran (Moradi and Omrani, 2019). In the outskirts of Maraghe lies the site of an underground structure known as the Mithraeum also the Imamzade Masum. This building has occupied archaeologists some of whom suggested that the architecture of this monument served as a Mithraeum and/or monasteries imported by the pre-Islamic dynasties in Iran (Shekari Niri, 2006). From an architectural point of view, this monument has three accessible areas: a main space surrounded by four domed chambers; a four-domed hall with a pillar in its center and a set of three long chambers some one hundred meters away. A parallelogram-shaped opening with a rough semi-circular roof and a single step of masonry blocks crosses into the central chamber. On the south of the main chamber is a large square-roofed alcove. The alcove leads to a little cavity that contains two niches. A second access to the largest domed room leads through an opening on the southern end of the east wall of the chamber via a passageway. The domed chamber has a remarkably well-preserved ceiling faceted in the Ilkhanid stylistic style. Each fact is a square or triangle and only one facet has any decoration left on it. It sounds that the calligraphic artwork of the rectangular hall was left incomplete and possibly brought to an abrupt halt (Azad, 2010). According to the gross fabric of the pillar hall which is made owing to a precipitate process of carving in compare with the other sections, it could be concluded that this part has been added during the recent renovations of this structure (Moradi and Omrani, 2019: 90).  By highlighting the word "Butkhana" (i.e. a place of Buddha or idols) in the primary sources, other scholars believe that here could be marked as a Buddhism Temple (Azad, 2010). Varjavand's studies were among the prior investigations about these units. According to his conclusion and without any sufficient documentations, this underground complexes date back to a period belonging to the prehistoric settlements, reused as a Mithraeum during historic era and renovated as a religious complex with the application of mosque and convent during the Islamic ages (Varjavan 1972). It is argued that Mongol conquest of Iran indeed has an architectural legacy; it also sets the models of elite architecture of the steppe which were particularly relevant to the religious architecture, carried on during the early phases of Mongol triumphs. According to the results, the combination of a corridor leading to one or more chambers is not entirely random in the so-called Mihr Temple of Maraghe but also shares an exact assimilation of those in Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and northeastern China (Moradi and Omrani, 2020). Using analytical expository study of the architectural evidences from Mongolia, Inner Mongolia and northeastern China, this paper is aimed to categorize the identity of similar structures in northwestern Iran as the same imported architectural heritage from these areas.
It is well documented that Mongols′ monarchy in the thirteen and fourteenth centuries fostered the direct exchange of ideas and practices between diverse cultures and religions. Scholars have evaluated the damage and the benefits brought by the Mongols to the Islamic world in military, religion, politics, economy, and culture fields (Bayani, 191: 87). It cannot be said that the Mongols, who lived in clans under hereditary leadership at the beginning of the twelfth century, were prepared for controlling the enormous territory that they had conquered. Nevertheless, the Mongols succeeded in creating a novel administrative system; they maintained some of the practices of the people of the steppes such as sharing out-of-subject people among the members of the imperial family, adding the elements of Chinese administrative practice. They also used the experience of Turco-Mongols who were integrated into the empire such as the Uighurs who ruled Mongolia and the Khitan who governed northern China (Lingley, 2014). The arrival of the Mongols in northwestern Iran in the 13th century transformed the Islamic provinces of northwestern Iran into a political, religious, and cultural region between Islam and Mongolian homeland traditions. The impact of this settlement of Turko-Mongols should be considered when discussing architectural motivation to create the so-called Mihrt Temple of Maraghe. Undoubtedly, the funeral architecture in accordance with early Mongolian customs was inevitable to cover funeral prospects of Mongol's elites and aristocratic families. Focusing our attention on the   funeral architecture of Mongolian and Inner Mongolian traditions and comparing these underground architectures with Iranian specimens in "Maraghe", "Nir", and "Azar Shar" provinces in northwestern Iran, this short essay will try to categorize the so-called Mihr Temple of Maraghe as the same funeral units of Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and northeastern China. According to the results and by comparing the architectural forms between Northwest Iran, Mongolia, Inner Mongolia and Northern China, not only there is no difference between plans and design, but also a same language of architecture has been repeated in both regions. According to the results, three type of tomb constructing method could be considered in an area including Inner Mongolia, Mongolia and Northeast China; one including a passageway end up with an antechamber and main chamber room which is mainly formed the structure of the tombs in Northeast China like tomb of Xu Xianxiu (Figure 9) and those in Bashon. Second is a corridor in connection with two successive domed chambers in Northeast most point of Inner Mongolia in Kogoryo's tombs which should be considered as the point where single chambers and multi chamber tombs overlapped; and the third: including a corridor, antechambers, main chamber and two bilateral rooms containing horse bones, warfare and ceramics. Although scholars cannot securely identify the origin of the design of Northwest Iran underground architecture, but from this point of view, Maraghe’s underground architecture might be a tomb in accordance with the architectural projects of Mongolian’s tomb like those in Huatehua, Abaoji's tomb, Shoroon Bumbagar tomb (Figure 10), tomb of Shoroon Dov barrow (Figure. 11), tomb of Xiao Yi, Tangut's royal tomb and tomb of Mme Yi; while Abazar’s tomb will follow the plan of tombs in Kogoryo and Azar Shahr’s tomb will be an exact copy of those in Northeast China. (Figure. 15) Since Mongol invasions of Iran (1256) is the most common reason of this transition before the time that Ghazan started a new architectural movement towards funeral architecture by establishing his complex known as Ghazaniyya (1320); Northwest Iran’s tomb most belong to the period between mid-13th to the early 14th centuries. 

Abstract Qorveh plain is located in the southeast of Kurdistan province and it is considered as one of the highlands of Zagros. This plain is located in the Sanandaj-Sirjan Inclined zone. The most prominent feature of this plain is the difference in the geological structure and environment of its north and south. This factor has made the distribution of settlements in these two parts completely different. Qorveh plain was studied and archaeologically reviewed in 2018. The result of this survey is the identification of 243 sites that indicated the establishment and continuity of human habitation from the Middle Chalcolithic period Age to the present, in this survey, more than 100 sites were identified for the first time, of these, and the Islamic period has a larger share. The present study is based on the archaeological findings of the Islamic period resulting from this study and it is trying to reconstruct the settlements landscape of this period and land use by assessment of historical texts, Satellite imagery and Gis maps and geology. In this study, the identified sites of the Islamic period are divided into three periods: early, middle and late centuries. The aim of this study is to study human relation with the environment in the Islamic period of this region. Some of the questions in this study are: what factors caused the formation of settlements in the Islamic period? What is the settlement pattern of Islamic sites in Qorveh plain? Did Qorveh plain have an urban center in the Islamic period? Among the factors such as water resources and fertile land, roads and mines have played a significant role in the formation of settlement s in Qorveh plain. The north settlements at plain are mostly linear and formed on river terraces. On the other hand, in the south of the plain, factors such as agricultural lands, communication routes and water resources have been very important in the formation of these areas. It seems that role of larger sites in creating small, satellite habitats in the southern part - probably the Central place system - has not been ineffective

Abstract In 2014, the contractor company operating the Damghan-Neka gas transmission line demolished and exposed two Parthian burial mounds in the village of Vestemin. Vestemin is located 80 km south of Sari. The historic site of Vestemin includes the east cemetery, the west cemetery, the settlement site, the castle and the Islamic cemetery. Vestemin is the first Parthian site in Mazandaran that has been excavated. What distinguishes this cemetery from other Parthian cemeteries discovered in the Parthian cultural sphere is that its western cemetery contains family burial mounds, which are unique in terms of architecture. The burial mounds of Vestemin Cemetery have three sections: 1) rectangular spaces or corridors, 2) entrances or gates between the corridor and the crypt, and 3) the crypt room. All of the burials are mass graves. The number of people buried in the tombs varies from one to five, and the method of burial is mostly squat. Seals and ring seals with human, animal, bird, plant, geometric, rider and fireplace motifs are among the motifs found in the western burial mound cemetery. In using the seals as a gift, the gender of the deceased was does not seem to have been a determining factor. This collection of Parthian seals is unique in terms of the number and variety of seal designs.

Abstract The Abharroud basin is an important region in the archeological studies of northwestern outskirts of the central plateau, and west and northwest of Iran. Considering its environmental capabilities and geographical location, studying the region can leads us to a better understanding of regional relations and also inter-regional interaction between the mentioned cultural-geographical regions. However, archeological studies in the region have not been taken into consideration satisfactorily and we know very little about the early settlements and their nature in the region. The archeological survey in the Abharroud basin was carried out in two seasons in 2003 and 2005. During the survey 257 archeological sites and monuments were discovered, dating from lower Paleolithic to recent ages. Of these, 34 sites contained prehistoric remains. The study results indicate that most of the prehistoric settlements belong to the Chalcolithic period and, in contrary, the least show the Paleolithic and Neolithic evidence. Most of the identified sites are the remains of villages scattered in different areas of the basin, on the plain and also impassable heights. A preliminary study on the surface finds of these settlements suggests a close cultural relation between these settlements and the prehistoric cultures of the central plateau, west and northwest of Iran, from Neolithic to Bronze Age.        

Abstract Archaeological data and textual sources provide information on Zoroastrian burial customs in Iran that could read and investigate in their context. One of these burial customs is burying the body into the towers of silence. This ritual practice canonized in Zoroastrian religious texts such as Vidēvdāt and documented in historical sources and archaeological findings. Beside Central Asia one what comparable to the first generation of towers of silence this funeral practice reported from Sasanid to the Late Islamic period. Although all of these burial structures mentioned as the towers of silence (Dakhma), there are plenty of architectural structures, from the beginning to the Late Islamic period; from the platforms of xwaršēd nigerišn to roofed towers of silence; from rooms of ossuary to central well (sarāda) of towers of silence. This paper has tried to thanks to archaeological findings and historical sources recommend some relative dating on towers of silence. Besides, the formal evolution of these burial structures has investigated from the Sasanid to the Late Islamic period. Hence, there are some questions to answer. 1) How are the continuation and evolution of the architectural structure of towers of silence from the Sasanid to the Late Islamic period? 2) Which elements caused the evolution of the architectural structure of towers of silence? 3) Is it possible to find a relative dating about the date of construction of these burial structures based on the evolution of the architecture of towers of silence? For the answer to these questions, a descriptive-analytical method has used. Field and library studies and comparative studies are the most important methods of this illustration. This study will show towers of silence follow four different architecture methods. The quality of roof covering, the way of exposure, the divide of burial spaces, location of a central well, how to enter to xwaršēd nigerišn places, details of architectural structure and creation of some buildings related to burial are the most important towers of silence diversities factors. There is some reason for these diversities: 1) emigration of Zoroastrian communities to Yazd 2) cultural relation between Iran and India Zoroastrian communities, 3) Maneckji Limji Hataria activities in Iran

Abstract The archaeological site of Sarcham is situated in the southwestern region (Hawraman Region) of Kurdistan Province in western Iran. It was excavated as part of the Darian Dam Archaeological Salvage Project (DDASP) in 2015, revealing a multi-period site with cultural deposits spanning four distinct archaeological periods. This paper aims to present the findings from the excavation season, highlighting the significance of each period. The cultural sequence of site includes the Middle Chalcolithic (Se Gabi phase), Middle Bronze Age, Late Bronze Age, and the Parthian/Sassanid era. The Middle Chalcolithic pottery discovered at Sarcham bears resemblance to that of the Seh Gabi period in the Central Zagros region. Similarly, the Middle Bronze Age pottery assemblage exhibits similarities with those found in the Central Zagros (late phases of Godin III), Northwestern Iran, and Anatolia. This excavation marks the first discovery of a Middle Bronze Age/Late Bronze Age site in Kurdistan Province. Furthermore, our research indicates that certain grey ware previously attributed to the Iron Age I period actually originated in the Bronze Age. The uppermost layer of the site, albeit somewhat disturbed, yielded pottery fragments dating to the Parthian/Sassanid period. This study sheds new light on the archaeological significance of Sarcham and contributes to the understanding cultural history of the region.

Abstract Abstract
Zoroaster is one of the most prominent and influential figures in the history of ancient Iran. Despite the importance of comprehending Zoroaster’s life history toward a better understanding of the cultural development processes of Iranian society, a variety of proposed dates from the Neolithic period to the Achaemenid period testifies to the difficulty of conducting research on this issue. The variety of proposed dates that had been derived from classical sources, Pahlavi texts and literature of the Islamic period were later regulated by linguistic studies and archaeological data. In this research, based on linguistic studies, an attempt has been made to examine and evaluate the archaeological data of the second and first millennia BCE of the Central Asia, with the aim of verifying the feasibility of their connection with the Zoroastrian religion. In this regard, the raised question is: to what extent can we establish a connection between the developments of the second millennium BCE in the eastern Iranian milieu and the emergence of Zoroaster? Moreover, what information does the archaeological data of the Iron Age of Central Asia provides about Zoroastrianism? In order to answer the proposed questions, library research methods (encompassing archaeological field reports) with a descriptive-analytical approach have been used. The results of this research show that during the late Bactrian-Margiana culture and the beginning of the Iron Age, certain cultural developments were taking place simultaneously, which could be evaluated and interpreted in the context of Zoroastrianism based on linguistic studies and archaeological data. The Bactrian-Margiana and Early Iron Age cultures had declined and a new culture with different socio-cultural traditions had emerged. The similarity of the class system of this period with the system reflected in the Gathas, shows that the idea that the Gathas’ society is the same as the Early Iron Age society of Central Asia seems logical and also emphasizes the religious developments aspect. It is possible to connect the aforementioned developments in the context of South Central Asia with the emergence of a new religion and prophet. A prophet who probably appeared in the east of the Iranian milieu in ca. 1700-1500 BCE and became the founder of one of the oldest and most influential religions of the ancient world.
Keywords: Zoroaster, Iron Age, Central Asia, Burial Custom, Fire Temple.
 
1. Introduction
One of the most complex issues in Iranian studies concerns the wide range of speculations regarding the life and chronological setting of Zoroaster. An examination of classical sources (Pliny, N.H. 30.1.3; Plutarch, On Isis and Osiris, 46–7; Laertius, I.1.2), Zoroastrian religious texts (Le Livre d’Ardā Vīrāz, 1.1–4; Vizidagiha-i Zādisparam, 25.12; Bundahišn, 22.240), and works by authors of the Islamic period (Masʿūdī, 1966: 415; Bīrūnī, 2010: 56; Mojmal al-tawāriḵ, 2010: 14) reveals that proposed dates for Zoroaster’s lifetime range from ca. 6000 BCE to the Achaemenid period. This question assumed a more systematic form with the linguistic analysis of the Gathas and their comparative study with the Rigveda (Boyce, 1979: 18; Gnoli, 1980: 174–178; Kreyenbroek, 2016: 13–25). If Zoroaster’s origins are to be located in the eastern regions of Greater Iran, as suggested by linguistic studies of the Gathas (Amouzgar & Tafazzoli, 1991: 21, 111), then archaeological data from Central Asia, considered alongside linguistic evidence, may contribute to informed hypotheses concerning his historical context. Although archaeological research has yielded limited direct evidence linking specific cultural traditions to religious doctrines, socio-political transformations during the transition from the Bactrian-Margiana Archaeological Complex to the Yaz culture may, in some cases, be interpreted in light of evolving religious ideologies. The advanced urban society of the Bactrian-Margiana culture, characterized by complex social and economic hierarchies and long-distance trade networks, declined between 1700 and 1500 BCE and was succeeded by the Yaz culture, with its attendant structural changes, around 1500–1300 BCE. In this later cultural horizon, villages replaced urban centers, and intricate urban hierarchies gave way to simpler socio-economic systems based on rural agriculture and pastoralism. Concurrently, ceramic traditions and mortuary practices underwent significant modification, with burial customs assuming a more standardized and integrated form. Given the close association between mortuary practice and religious belief, the departure from typical Bactrian-Margiana burial traditions and the emergence of relatively uniform mortuary customs under the Yaz culture suggest the possibility of religious transformation across southern Central Asia. Moreover, certain burial practices of this period appear to anticipate later Zoroastrian traditions. Notable examples include (1) the disappearance of inhumation graves and (2) the increasing practice of exposing corpses in open air. The discovery of architectural and material evidence interpreted as related to fire temples within the Yaz cultural sphere (Pidaev, 1974: 33–35; Askarov, 1982; Boucharlat, 2014: 10) further strengthens the argument for a tangible connection between this cultural milieu and emerging Zoroastrian traditions. In the present study, an effort has been made to reassess the historical context of Zoroaster through a critical examination of classical sources, Zoroastrian religious literature, and Islamic-period historiography, in conjunction with linguistic scholarship and archaeological data. The research proceeds from the assumption that the extensive social, economic, and cultural transformations observable during the transition from the Bactrian-Margiana culture to the Yaz culture—and the subsequent association of the Yaz cultural horizon with Zoroastrianism—reflect processes of religious development, including the adaptation and transformation of certain religious elements inherited from the Bactrian-Margiana tradition.

2. The archaeological data
Following the decline of the Bactrian-Margiana Archaeological Complex and the emergence of a cultural horizon characterized by handmade and painted ceramics, diverse mortuary practices became widespread across southern Central Asia, some of which may be interpreted within the framework of later Zoroastrian traditions. (1) In one category, corpses were interred in a relatively simple manner, occasionally wrapped in a shroud-like covering. In certain cases, human bones appear to have shifted after deposition, likely due to decomposition occurring within a confined or covered space. This pattern has been documented at Early Iron Age sites such as Dzharkutan, Kuchuk-tepe, and Dal’verzin, and at Ulug-depe during the Middle Iron Age (Bendezu-Sarmiento & Lhuillier, 2015: 283–284). At Kuchuk-tepe, bodies were placed upon a layer of pebbles (ibid.: 299), a practice reminiscent of the Zoroastrian injunction that a corpse should not come into direct contact with the soil. Evidence for the use of shrouds has also been reported in historical-period Zoroastrian burials in Central Asia (Kurkina, 2005: 62; Baratov, 2013: 33; Mousavinia, 2023: 24–35), continuing into the late Islamic centuries (Azargoshasb, 1969; Mousavinia, 2023: 143–148). (2) A second mortuary tradition involved collective burials, either simultaneous or successive. In some cases, remains were recovered as scattered bone fragments. This practice has been identified at Early Iron Age sites such as Dal’verzin and Dzharkutan (Bendezu-Sarmiento & Lhuillier, 2015: 290–298), and at Geokchik-depe in the sixth and seventh centuries BCE (Lecomte, 2005: 465; Mashkour, 1998: 209). (3) Another category consists of shallow surface graves containing limited human bone fragments, some bearing cut marks. Examples have been documented at Dzharkutan and Dashly 30 (Early Iron Age), at Ulug-depe (Middle Iron Age), and at Edatguly (sixth–seventh centuries BCE) (Bendezu-Sarmiento & Lhuillier, 2015: 283–302). (4) Secondary burial practices have also been recorded, indicating that the Xwaršēd Nigerišn rite was likely performed in open-air contexts before bones were gathered and redeposited in pits, either individually or collectively. This practice has been reported at Dzharkutan (Sellier & Bendezu-Sarmiento, 2013), at Chust and Tujabuguz (Early Iron Age), and at Tepe Zargaran during the Achaemenid period (Bendezu-Sarmiento & Lhuillier, 2015: 297–303). (5) In certain cases, scattered human bone fragments—likely resulting from the performance of Xwaršēd Nigerišn—have been discovered at Early Iron Age sites such as Dal’verzin and Tujabuguz (Bendezu-Sarmiento & Lhuillier, 2015: 303), as well as at Geokchik-depe (Lecomte, 2005: 466). This practice continued from the Early to the Middle Iron Age at Ulug-depe (Bendezu-Sarmiento, 2006) and is also attested in the Achaemenid period at Shortepa (Bendezu-Sarmiento & Lhuillier, 2015: 303).
In addition to burial customs, archaeological evidence interpreted as Zoroastrian fire temples has been reported from Central Asia. Monumental ritual structures first appear in the Bronze Age (Boucharlat, 2014: 10) at sites such as Togolok 21 and Gonur (Sarianidi, 1998) and continue into the Middle Iron Age at Topaz Gala Depe (Wagner, 2014), Tillya Tepe (Sarianidi, 1989), Pachmak Tepe (Pidaev, 1974: 33–35), and Pshaktepa (Askarov, 1982). Although attributing the Bronze Age examples directly to Zoroastrianism remains problematic, consideration of the broader Middle Iron Age context in Central Asia—particularly in conjunction with contemporaneous mortuary traditions—permits a more substantiated discussion of the possible Zoroastrian character of such structures from approximately 1100 BCE onward.
 
3. Conclusion
One of the most complex issues in Iranology concerns the study of Zoroastrianism and the attempt to situate Zoroaster’s lifetime within the vast chronology of ancient Iran. Clarifying this question constitutes a crucial step toward establishing a more precise historical framework, which in turn enables a more accurate evaluation of archaeological data and a deeper understanding of the cultural developments of the period and its aftermath. Although accounts of Zoroaster’s life appear in classical sources, Pahlavi texts, and Islamic-era literature, the first systematic scholarly efforts to reconstruct his historical context were grounded in linguistic analysis. The close linguistic affinity between the Gathas and the Rigveda, together with philological dating, suggests that this oldest portion of the Avesta originated in northeastern Iran and was likely composed around 1700–1500 BCE. Concurrently, archaeological evidence from Central Asia has illuminated additional dimensions of early Zoroastrian traditions. The identification of fire temple structures at sites such as Topaz Gala Depe, Tillya Tepe, Pachmak Tepe, and Pshaktepa, dating to the Middle Iron Age, indicates that 1100 BCE may represent the latest plausible date for Zoroaster’s lifetime. Conversely, the diversity of burial traditions associated with the Xwaršēd Nigerišn rite, attested from approximately 1500 BCE onward, suggests that his historical context may extend several centuries earlier. Notably, this chronological horizon corresponds with linguistic assessments of the Gathas and the dating of their archaic vocabulary.
This period coincides with substantial socio-cultural transformations in Central Asia, some of which may be interpreted in light of evolving religious ideologies. The decline of the Bactrian-Margiana Archaeological Complex and the emergence of the Yaz culture marked a transition from urban centers to village-based settlement patterns, from complex urban hierarchies to simpler rural systems grounded in agriculture and pastoralism, alongside the appearance of new ceramic traditions and increasingly standardized burial practices. The divergence of this emerging culture from Bactrian-Margiana traditions, together with the growing uniformity of mortuary customs, may plausibly reflect processes of religious transformation. Furthermore, parallels between the tripartite social structure reflected in the Gathas and the social organization characteristic of Early Iron Age Central Asia lend support to the argument that the society described in the Gathas corresponds broadly to that archaeological horizon, underscoring the likelihood of significant religious developments during this era. Within this broader South Central Asian context, it is therefore plausible to associate these transformations with the emergence of a new religious movement and its prophetic founder—likely active in the eastern Iranian cultural sphere around 1700–1500 BCE—who would come to be regarded as the originator of one of the most ancient and influential religions of the premodern world.

Abstract The relocation of the administrative and political center of the Hormuz Kingdom from coastal Hormuz to Jarun Island was one of the significant events influencing the political and economic transformations in the Persian Gulf during the late 7th century. This relocation created a new position for the transportation of goods and, as a result, created new trade routes. Hormuz was connected to Jiruft and then to Kerman through a main road, which was considered the most important route for land caravans to access the port of Hormuz until the 8th century AH. Numerous archaeological and historical evidence indicate that the use of this route gradually diminished during the 8th century AH and was replaced by an alternative route. At the same time, the emergence of new roads also provided suitable conditions for the growth and development of settlements and villages and led to the emergence of a new geographical, demographic, and social space. Since the issue of the relocation of trade centers from coastal Hormuz to Jarun Island and the formation of the road network in the northern regions of the Persian Gulf in the 8th century AH has not been studied and investigated using historical resources, the present article aims to examine this topic and uses the hypothesis of "the decline and prosperity of northern cities and settlements in the Persian Gulf is a consequence of change in the road network and relocation of trade centers" as its framework

Abstract Architects have always built mosques as one of the important elements of the architecture of urban buildings with different designs and climate considerations. Tabas area located south of southern Khorasan province has always played an important role in Iranian history, art and culture, especially during Islamic period. This feature can be found from the many valuable and valuable works left over from the architecture of this area. In the archaeological survey in 1394 in Dastgerdan Tabas, was identified two mosques; "Dastgerdan Old Mosques" and "Hudar" in this area i, which have not been studied of their structure and function. The mosque has a unique geometric plan with two Ivans Khorasan mosques comparable in middle Islamic period. Since this mosque is not studied and archaeological analysis, therefore, the present study is of particular importance. The method used in this research is of fundamental type and its method is descriptive-analytical. The field surveys and studies have collected by library resources through observation and mapping. In this article, we tried to determine the type of masonry and compared through other mosques, cultural and historical context of the situation to be examined. The results show that according to the structure of the Dastgerdan Old Mosque, and the context in which it was formed, Dating construction to the Middle Islamic period, in particular, it is base to the "Ilkhanid era".

Abstract In the third season excavation of Lama Cemetery (Chal Shahin Lama), a cylindrical seal with inscription was found and because of its significance, it was introduced, compared and analyzed. Existence of this seal indicates the continuation of nomadic practices of the people of this cemetery in spite of change of material culture (for example, ceramic). The seal of Lama and its grave reflect the broad cultural communication with neighboring regions. Moreover, the prolonged use of Lama’s cylindrical seal emphasizes that caution be practiced in chronological studies based on one particular object or index. There is a huge gap in the time between the creation of the inscription and engraving of the animal. It is likely that the inscription of this seal belongs to the late Bronze Age/early Iron Age and the image of the ostrich dates to Iron Age III.

Abstract Based on the historical data, Marhashi has been one of the eventful regions of Iran during the second and third millennium B. C. It has been also one of the important confederates of ancient Elam during the most of its life time. The Mesopotamia texts cited to its name beside the name of ancient Elam. The goal of this research is to determine the position of Marhashi region through study and examining the historical resources and archaeologist evidence indicated that Marhashi may has been located on the Pusht-i Kuh region of Elam province. During an archaeological survey carried out on the Pusht-i Kuh region of Elam, many sites of ancient Elam have been determined; one of which is named Kool Khazine. According to its archaeological findings we assumed Kool Khazine to have been most likely as the same of ancient Marhashi or a place that was connected with Marhashi.

Abstract Roodbar plain and the mountainous surrounding areas of the southeast of Iran have long been a great place to establish the human settlements due to their suitable climate. Archaeological surveys of Roudbar plain and the mountainous areas around it in the cultural basin of Halilroud were carried out in an area of over 6000 square kilometers and as a result, 53 sites were identified and contributed to the Chalcolithic period. Permanent river of Halialroud and the fertile plain of the southern Roudbar have been the most important factors influencing the formation of the settlement pattern of the Chalcolithic sites in this area. The main pattern of sites distribution in this period are a cluster pattern near Halialroud and its sub-branches in the bed of Roudbar plain and on foots and slopes of the mountains. Given the available evidence including location, extent, amount and density of surface effects it is possible to attribute these sites to permanent or temporary settlements. By studying the pottery types obtained from these sites and comparing it with Yahya's potteries and tall-e Iblis and Mahtotabad we can observe the sequence and continuity of deployment in different stages of the Chalcolithic period. The relation with the centers such as Bardsir valley (Iblis), Soghun plain (Yahya) and Jiroft plain (Mahtotabad) led to the creation of common cultures and cross-cultural interactions during this period. This article attempts to introduce the Chalcolithic settlements of the southern Roudbarplain using the geographical information system (GIS) to reconstruction and analysis of the settlement pattern of this period.

Abstract Historians and geographers of the early and middle centuries of the Islamic period have recorded a place known as Veymeh or Deymeh in their writings, which have apparently been among the major flourishing cities in that era. In terms of reputation and prosperity, the city was mentioned in parallel with some significant and large cities such as Dam?vand, Kh?r and Shalanbeh and was known even to be larger than some of those cities.
The geographical boundaries of the city are mentioned by some historians to be within the area surrounded by Rey, Tabarest?n, and Dam?vand. Such records notwithstanding, and in spite of the studies carried out by some contemporary researchers, the accurate location of the city has not been specifically identified, and the views held on the present-day location of the city of Veymeh is a question the answer to which is in need of further accuracy. In the course of an archeological research in the city of Fir?zk?h in 2002, authors of the present article came across the above problem and decided to conduct a careful and intensive study to identify the geographical location of the city of Veymeh or Deymeh and its present-day location. What this paper presents is the findings of the above researches.

Abstract Since the ancient times, burial practices have displayed certain characteristics among different Iranian ethnic groups and regions were influenced by the local religious orientations, traditions and environments, and are regarded as part of the spiritual culture of any given population. Indeed, religious beliefs play the main role in this diversity. Because of the empire’s long endurance and vast extent as well as its exceptional cultural diversity, various burial customs prevailed during the Parthian period. Large number of cemeteries with a plethora of different burial practices has been excavated at different Parthian sites lying both within and outside modern Iran, including jar burial, cellar burial, mausoleum, coffin burial, well burial, parallelepiped graves, simple pits and cairns.
Unlike the most area in the Iranian central plateau, the vast plain around Tehran have no been the focus of any serious archaeological surveys or excavations thus the historical setting, archaeology and burial patterns of the region during the Parthian period remained totally unknown. However, a number of burials have recently been discovered and excavated during two seasons of excavations at Veliran. Their preliminary study has revealed important information on burial practices and religious attitude of the residents of Damavand area during the Parthian period. The results of this study are described in the present paper.

Abstract In the past two decades several new approaches have emerged in archeology. New archeology which found its true nature in deep interdisciplinary relations created new approaches involving different sciences such as basic, natural, engineering, laboratory, geographical, social, human, etc. Spatial archaeology is one of these new approaches. It is kind of recycling information of ancient civilizations through studying architectural structures, settlement spaces, and effective systems of inside/ outside the sites. Since this science studies architectural spaces and ancient contexts of different historical periods using different disciplines at different levels, it can be extensively used by experts in prehistoric and contemporary archeology. The present paper describes previous studies and theoretical foundations of such approach and attempts to explain its levels/ methods and answer how spatial archaeology can be used in the study and analysis of architectural spaces, settlements and ancient urban systems.

Abstract Relying upon the theories concerned with the cultural evolution of anthropology and archaeology, and providing a brief review of the related literature, the present article conducts a careful examination of the evolutionary trends in pottery of the layers from the prehistoric periods of Qal’eh Kh?n. Testing several variables affecting pottery, the article proposes that while cultural evolutionism can describe and partly clarify the chronological evolution of cultural items, it will not be possible to carry out a comprehensive analysis of such evolutions and therefore realistic interpretations cannot be provided without due consideration of the environment (including the landscape, social organization, internal and external social relations, relations with other environmental contents, and interactions with the environment). It is argued that, from among a variety of statistical analyses, while the evolution of pottery is moving towards complexity and development, this is not indicative of its technological evolution. Pottery has undergone evolution, in the course of history, by changing from one form to another and matching to its environment.

Abstract Archaeology and history might have many things to do with each other in historical past and present field. Both of them belong to the same category of our historical knowledge. Pickax of archaeologists have been raised from the pen of historians after the fundamental and revolutionary changes occurred in the historical thoughts and understanding of history. The main task of both as an academic discipline turned toward deeper understanding about our historical “Parousia” in the world. This article aims at giving a brief analytical view of homogeneity of two disciplines.  

Abstract Geography, history, and the material culture provide the three bases for definition and determination of a cultural landscape. The region of Maymand in northwestern of Kerman province as the interacting-ground of the three aforementioned factors is considered as a cultural landscape. The geographic diversity, historical events and 2500-years-old cultural vestiges have prepared the necessities for the formation of a dynamic cultural landscape. The archaeological survey findings show the process of change and evolution in lifestyles of the people who have been living in the Maymand region from ancient times to modern era. This process has been affected by geographic conditions on the one hand and has influenced the region’s history on the other hand. In addition to the complicated and multilinear historical processes having determined the characteristics of the Maymand’s landscape, the village of Maymand has played the focal role in the changing and evolution of the region. Identifying the factors which were acting in the evolution of the cultural landscape of Maymand, would help us to find the true way to indicate and solve the current problems.

Abstract Kohgilouyeh and Boyrahmad mountainous region has been played an important role in Iranian archaeology especially where the formation of nomadic communities is discussed. Through history different nomads have settled the region due to its moderate climate and fertile pasturelands. Archaeological studies having recently been conducted in this region have shown variant settlement sites which have temporally been used by these nomadic communities. One of these sites is Kombus Bonari which has been located in Choram county of Kohgilouyeh and Boyrahmad. In 2009, this site was precisely investigated by the authors to specify its real extent as well as its chronological orders. In this research our findings based on an archaeological and ethno-archaeological approaches is presented. It is important to say that Kombus Bonari provided us a diagnostic type of Islamic pottery known as Islamic Painted Potteries which have not been reported from the region before.
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Abstract During history, few eras have been as ambiguous and dark as Parthians. Mithraism ideology had king’s support and promised salvation and a new after-death world to the soldiers. From this view, Parthians cared about the political aspect of the religion rather than the religion itself. Mithras Temple is a good example of political reaction of Parthians against Roman religious architectures. After Parthians’ conquers and the increase of border conflicts in the western and northwestern parts of Iran, remains of Zahhak can be considered as the focus of power center in first century A.D. In a way that the influence of religion is evident with direct and determining presence of temple in martial-political destiny of the country. Since unlike the other regions, the Parthian temples have not been discovered so far from inside Iran this study aims to introduce Zahak Temple in northwest Iran through describing its historical, geographic, and cultural backgrounds to conclude that Zahak can be viewed as a gate of Mithraism entrance to Europe and a start point of Iranian thought influence into the west.