Journal of Archaeological Studies

The Archaeological Survey of Shahivand Region in Chegeni County, Lorestan Province

Mohammad Bahrami

Volume 16, Issue 1 , February 2024, , Pages 1-1

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2023.357444.143193

Abstract

Chegani county is located in the western of Lorestan province, In order to complete the studies and investigations carried out in Lorestan province, in the summer of 2012, Shahivand ... Read More

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The Chronological Analysis and Process of Evolution of Settlements from The Uruk Period to the End of Neo- Elamite Period, in The Deh Luran Plain (Patak)

shaghayegh Hourshid

Volume 15, Issue 1 , April 2023, , Pages 293-324

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2022.348647.143159

Abstract

The beginning of field research in the Deh Luran Plain dates back to the early twentieth century. During this period, researches have been mainly focused on the northwestern part of ... Read More

Archaeology of Qara Dagh: Preliminary Report of the Survey of the Bronze and Iron Age Sites in Varzeqan Region (Iranian Azerbaijan)

Hossein Naseri Someeh; Alireza Hejebri Nobari; Erkan Konyar

Volume 13, Issue 4 , September 2022, , Pages 283-306

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.284880.142749

Abstract

Archaeological studies in the region of Qara Dagh (or Arasbaran) are of particular importance due to the fact that this region is located in the area between East-West (Iranian) Azerbaijan ... Read More Archaeological studies in the region of Qara Dagh (or Arasbaran) are of particular importance due to the fact that this region is located in the area between East-West (Iranian) Azerbaijan and Iran-Anatolian Plateau, as well as north to south of Caucasus-Iran. Archaeological activities in Qara Dagh are often aimed at conducting systematic research to explain the socio-political situations, investigate the cultural-technological currents and changes, explore the connecting and commercial routes of Northern region of Azerbaijan during the Bronze and Iron ages, outline the long-term scientific landscape, and also to understand the archaeological status of the region, relying on field and laboratory methods. The first season of this project, in 2017, dealt with identification of the Bronze and Iron Age sites of Varzeqan city. During the present survey, have been recorded 143 sites from the early Bronze Age to the Iron Age III in the region; and from the most important results of this survey, the changes recorded during the transitions from each period to the next period in relation to demographic changes, settlement patterns and location selecting, evaluating the landscape and natural resources in order to be aware of food networks and economic systems, studying the ecology of the region, livelihood approaches and burial methods can be mentioned. According to this evidence, settlements have been very limited in the region during the early Bronze Age. With the collapse of semi-farmer communities in the early Bronze Age, nomadic life was limitedly formed in the middle of the Bronze Age. In the late of Middle Bronze Age, once again, with the formation of sedentary communities, an increase in the population of the region and the emergence of social complexities are seen during the late Bronze Age to the Iron Age II, followed by the establishment of a primitive class society which was formed under the administration of local small rulers

A Research on Chronology and Function of Qalʻeh Geli Kaj in Qom

rasoul ahmadi; Reza Mehrafarin; seyyed rasoul mousavi haji

Volume 13, Issue 2 , September 2021, , Pages 25-46

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2020.240953.142471

Abstract

Qalʻeh Geli Kaj site, located in 50 km northeast of Qom, with an area of about seven hectares, is one of the most important settlements in the historical period of Qom region. ... Read More Qalʻeh Geli Kaj site, located in 50 km northeast of Qom, with an area of about seven hectares, is one of the most important settlements in the historical period of Qom region. This site, which consists of two parts of the central castle and the remains of the settlement around it, is of special importance in archaeological studies and the history of Iranian architecture in terms of architectural features and various techniques of arch construction. Despite the scattered research that has been done about this site, there are still various questions about the dating, use and also the factors influencing the formation, development and abandonment of this place. The present study aims to answer the existing questions and ambiguities by using the archaeological evidence obtained from the superficial survey of the site and studying the written historical and geographical sources. Therefore, the method used in this research is based on historical analysis and data collection based on field and documentary studies. According to the results, the location of Qalʻeh Geli Kaj, next to one of the sub-branches of the Silk Road (Isfahan to Rey road) and the need to provide the people’s own and financial security of commercial caravans, have been among the main factors of this site’s formation and development. In fact, the initial nucleus of Qalʻeh Geli in the Parthian period was formed as a facility related to the communication road around it, and during the Sassanid period, as a result of the expansion of trade relations, it became a small town. With the arrival of Islam in Iran and following the recession of economic activities, living in Qalʻeh Geli also declined for several centuries; but after the coming to power of the Seljuks and re-advert to trade affairs, with the reconstruction of the architectural structures of Qalʻeh Geli and the construction of a stone caravanserai on its southeastern side, this town was rebuilt. The Seljuk settlement of Qalʻeh Geli is not the last stage of settlement in there and according to archeological evidence, it was also used during the Ilkhanid and Safavid periods; but it has never regained its previous glory. Finally, with the construction of a new communication road between Qom and Tehran in 1882 AD Qalʻeh Geli was also abandoned

Investigation of the Cultural Changes of the Zarandeh Region from the Chalcolithic to Islamic Period

Hanan Bahrani pour; Mozhgan Khanmoradi

Volume 13, Issue 1 , July 2021, , Pages 1-22

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.285834.142755

Abstract

(1-22) The Zarandieh county is located in north of Markazi province and northwest Central Plateau of Iran (Figure 1). The capital of the county is Mamuniyeh and this city is located ... Read More (1-22) The Zarandieh county is located in north of Markazi province and northwest Central Plateau of Iran (Figure 1). The capital of the county is Mamuniyeh and this city is located 80 km from Tehran and 30 km from Saveh. From archaeological point of view, this region is located between Central Zagros mountainous and Central Plateau of Iran. Despite of its proximity well known regions of Central Zagros mountainous and Central Plateau of Iran, it is archaeologically poorly known. Our information about the archaeology of Zarandieh region is restricted to Azem zadeh᾽s work in 1970s, who conducted 3 season archaeological survey in the Saveh and Zarandieh region. Then R. Rezalo conducted a systematic survey at Qhaznak Tape in 2001. Other archaeological activities include the sounding and excavation at Meshken Tape in 2007 and 2008 by Nouri shadmahani and M. Nemati and also excavation and systematic survey at Qhaznak Tape in 2007. In 2008, an archaeological survey conducted by Hanan Bahranipour mainly to identify the settlements pattern and recording of archaeological sites of Zarandieh region. The most important aim of the first season of archaeological survey was identification of the possible sites in this landscape, providing the archaeological map of the area and completing the previous archaeological survey. This project has been directed by intensive survey and also information gathered from local people to recognized and register ancient sites; the process of sampling the uncovered sites was then carried out by collecting typical finds which finally resulted in identification of ancient sites. Despite the number of known settlement sites, so far no systematic archaeological studies have been done on this period and the different aspects of these settlements are unknown. The one season of the survey and exploration resulted in the identification of 99 sites in Zarandieh region (Figure 3). Results from survey areas document a sequence of occupation from prehistory to the Late Islamic period. Among them, 19 sites belonged to prehistoric period (Figure 4), 6 sites (Figure 8) to historical period (Parthian and Sasanian periods) and 84 sites belonging to Islamic period (Figure 10). Islamic sites include big sites, mound, mosque, Imamzādeh, bridge, ice- house, caravansary, cistern, fortress, cemetery, bath, Pigeon tower and etc.The present study is based on two categories of historical and archaeological information which has provided new information about Zarandieh region. The study method included fieldwork and secondary research with a descriptive–analytical approach. Extent, spatial distribution of the sites and introduce different cultural periods of the Zharandieh region and their continuity and discontinuance was the other aims of this study. Geomorphological observations suggest that number of the sites has been located on natural hills (Figure 2). All prehistoric sites are located just near seasonal or perennial streams or rivers. According to the surface materials (such as pottery, lithic, tail, clay pipes (Tanpusheh) and so on) and architectural character or style the mentioned sites belonging to Chalcolithic era to the late Islamic period. Most of sites were being introduced for the first time. However, the some sites, including most notably Gobur qaleh Si, Qaleh garbi Varame and Qaleh shargi contain cultural remains from multiple occupations. We could not identify the Paleolithic and Neolithic episodes yet. But in 2007, Nemati discovered a Paleolithic open site. Zarandieh region divided in to two main zones of plain and mountains. This area contains sequential settlements beginning right from prehistoric period till the late Islamic period. The recorded sites and monuments mostly are located in Zarandieh plain and Kharaghan mountain foothill. Chalcolithic period trace is recognized in 8 sites. The ceramic assemblage of this period can be divided into two major groups: Buff Ware and red Ware; the former contains both plain and painted ceramic. These samples are comparable to ceramics obtained from sites in the Central Plateau and central Zagros such as Tape Sialk in the Kashan Plain, Godin tape in Kangavar plain, Tape Sagz Abad and Tape Ghabrestan in the Qazvin Plain, Tape Qelā Gap and Shat Ghilah in Malayer. In the Bronze period, number of the sites decrease and Tape Gaznak is the largest site in this period. The area of occupation is more than 20 Hectar. The presence of deformed pottery pots and furnace residue are the evidences of pottery production in this area. Also a very large ocher mine is located near this site. Evidence of metal slag has been found in this area. Based on this survey it seems that during historical period number of sites is rare and the number decreases. We identified no site of The Achaemenid and Seleucid period. We identified only 6 sites belong to Parthian and Sasanian periods. Parthian ceramics are varies from buff, orange to red type. A number of these ceramics have mostly impress, curved and raised decorations (Figure 9). Also these types of ceramics show the cultural relations with Qale’ Yazdgird, Khurhe, Parthian domain of Bisotun and Sang-e Shir Cemetery in Hamedan and etc. Most surveyed sites dated to the Islamic period, mainly middle and late Islamic period. In the Islamic period, the number increases drastically, reaching 84. It seems that in this period, the sites are located mostly in side plain. The sites including settlements, mosque, Imam zādeh, bridge, ice- house, caravansary, watering place, fortress, cemetery, bath, Pigeon tower and small and large mounded sites. In this period, the human settlements have been focused on the rivers and water resources for example Qanats. The Zarandieh region populated during the Islamic period and formed towns and villages in Zarandieh plain. The recorded sites mostly belong to Seljuk period and Ilkhanid era. One of the major cities of Iran, which was on the Silk Road, is Moshkoye located between Hamedan, Saveh and Rayy. Based on historical and archeological evidences (for example pottery and architecture) one site proposed as the probable location of the city which is Moshkin Tape in Zarandieh township. Moshkin Tape has been most important in regard to settlement patterns from 10 to 13 century A.D. The name of the city of Moshkoye appears in the books of authors such as Ibn Hawqal, Ibn ḵurdādbih, Ibn Rusta, Istakhri, Jayhani, Maghdasi and so on. In Islamic period, presence of ceramic tripods, plugs (stoppers) and deformed fragments attest to their local production at Moshkin Tape (Figure 11), Tape Abdollah Abad and Tape Shirin Chai. The ceramic types in Zarandieh region include the unglazed simple wares, molded wares, monochrome glaze, added motifs, wares, Sgraffiato, splashed glaze wares, lusterware. The distribution of the sites and their positions compare to the Rivers (Shirin Rood, Adramneh Chai, Rood Shur, and Maasum Rood) indicate that these rivers have played an important role for the populations who used to live in this geographical region during the prehistoric to Islamic times. The investigation is not now complete and the considerable amount of material and data and excavation of the major sites is currently being studied leading to full publication of the results. Inquiring into the features of the recognized sites, this article focuses on cultural periods and the nature of their settlement patterns. The results of the survey of Zarandieh County promise a clear outlook on the oncoming archaeological research projects depending on the pre- defined questions which certainly will be followed by brilliant consequences.

The role of Environmental Factors in the Location and Genesis of Parthian Sites in North Khorasan (Central Kopeh dagh-Aladagh Corridor)

Azita Mirzaye; Reza Mehrafarin; Seyed Rasoul Mosavi Haji

Volume 12, Issue 3 , December 2020, , Pages 327-347

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2020.255365.142550

Abstract

Geographic and environmental attributes of a given region assume a pivotal role in the formation and persistence of human settlements. Nature confers possibilities and resources on ... Read More Geographic and environmental attributes of a given region assume a pivotal role in the formation and persistence of human settlements. Nature confers possibilities and resources on human, who, as per his understanding of them, employs them in pursuit of his goals, hence the rise of human–nature interaction. The frequency of and the ways in which human settlements are established and the type of functions they serve with regard to environmental characteristics give rise to the ecology, which aims to grasp the scope of the interrelationships between humans and the environment. The present paper examines the scope of human-environment interactions in the Parthian period over the geographic extent of the central part of the Kopeh dagh-Aladagh corridor. The paper seeks to ascertain the local environment’s influence on the formation and evolution of Parthian settlements and to find out the pertinent settlement patterns in northern Khorasan. Given the environmental potentialities, what were the Parthians’ criteria for site location when establishing their settlements? How did these priorities affect the distribution of sites and their settlement pattern in the study area? The present paper represents a multifaceted research drawing upon archaeological survey, ecological studies, information processing in GIS, examining the relationships between natural and cultural variables and their impact on the formation of the contemporaneous settlements, and finally archaeological analysis. The study adopts an ecological and economical approach. In this context, ecological data on the relation between soil type, geology, flora, fauna, and water table or “biosorption analysis” have been used. Processual archaeologists use ecological systems as their basic model for observing the adaptive transformations humans in response to environmental circumstances as even small environmental alterations will have the potential to affect cultural structures. The Kopeh dagh-Aladagh corridor stretches from Garmab in western North Khorasan to the Mashhad plain to the east. For the purposes of this study, the corridor is divided into the following three separate parts based on geographic features that someway affect cultural aspects: a) Western part: extending from the beginning of the village of Garmab to the border of Shirvan County (Reza Abad), this part is characterized by a mountainous terrain with narrow passes such as Badranlu; b) Central part: in this part, defined by the beginning of Shirvan County (Reza Abad) and the end of Quchan County, the plains grow wider as the mountains begin to sit back; c) Eastern part: Chenaran County and the Mashhad plain mark the extreme boundaries of this part. The focus of the present work is on the central corridor, viz. the stretch delineated by the counties of Shirvan, Farooj and Quchan (Figure: 1). Geographically, the study area encompasses the structural valley of Atrak-Kashafrud, an expanse that is bounded by the mountains of Kopeh Dagh/Hezar Masjed to the north and the Aladagh/Binalud mountains to the south (Figure:2). This plain geomorphological unit exhibits a fairly wide and flat landform, and is principally affected by the sedimentary process of the flowing water bodies of the Kashafrud and Atrak rivers and their tributaries. Geomorphology, it consists of three main units of plain, foothills, and mountains. Its northern and southern sectors are mountainous, its slopes are characterized by foothills, and its central part consists of plain. Indeed, the mountainous quarters comprise small, narrow intermontane plains, which fall in the plain sub-class. The regional heights follow the northwest-southeast trend dictated by the general orientation of the Kopeh dagh zone. The Atrak and Kashafrud rivers rise from the regional mountains, forming two drainage basins. The archeological survey of the concerned area recorded more than 500 archaeological mounds and sites spanning the Chalcolithic to the Islamic period. Based on a comparative analysis of the surface pottery, 20 Parthian sites are distinguishable. It is notable that due to the lack of adequate knowledge of common Parthian pottery forms in the region, due caution has been exercised in the identification of these sites. These Parthian sites are divided between 16 examples lying in the northern half of the plain on the southern slopes of Kopeh dagh/Hezar Masjed and 4 instances that occur in the southern half on the northern slopes of Aladagh. As stated, a main objective of this study is to pin down the influential factors of the region's ecology in the formation of Parthian sites and their distribution in the geographic setting of the central Kopeh dagh-Aladagh corridor. To this end, such components as geology, altitude, slope gradient and aspect, climate, water resources and soil are explored. Finally, the results of the study reveal a close and direct correlation between the site location and the environmental factors (Figures: 3-10). The central Kopeh dagh/Hezar Masjed corridor on the north and Aladagh/Binalud on the south form an upland district hemmed in by mountains. Due to its mountain geomorphology, the area is generally dominated by cold, dry climate. In mountainous regions, slopes and valleys generally offer more advantageous conditions for settlement as the altitude variable prompts reduced temperature and increased humidity. Dropped temperature in warm seasons results in lowered evaporation of water resources, making water resources more easily accessible throughout the year. The choice of appropriate altitude as an influential factor in human activities has thus led to the concentration of Parthian settlements on the slopes dominating the plain. Choosing slopes provided the local populations with access to montane pastures, but also enabled them to exploit alluvial and fertile plains. The same strategy is still operative in the region, where, save for the cities that lie in the plain, rural settlements mostly sit on the slopes overlooking the plain. The distribution of the sites in reference to the slope gradient and aspect shows that, with the exception of F 0026, the Parthian sites lie in proper points of terrain ruggedness and slope gradient spectra, and their dominant slope aspect indicates the maximum use of solar heat in this cold region, with advantageous impacts on agricultural production and pastures. Given their location on slopes, the hitherto identified Parthian sites mostly occur on the spring-fed influent streams that flow into the Atrak, with no instances recognized along the latter. In light of the results from environmental studies, the altitude, slope gradient, easy access to water resources, and fertile soil served as the foremost factors governing the distribution of Parthian sites in the region as they were directly linked with subsistence. It is notable that while our environmental studies drew on the present-day landscape, the survey of the study area produced about 500 sites dating between the Chalcolithic to the Islamic period, and presence of this huge number of sites over this protracted timespan testifies to the fact that advantageous environmental conditions did prevail in the past.

Archaeological Survey of Parthian Sites in Dargaz Plain, North-East of Iran

Hassan Nami; Seyed Mehdi Mousavinia

Volume 11, Issue 1 , May 2019, , Pages 233-252

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.71116

Abstract

Dargaz County is located in northeastern Iranian Plateau, near to borders of Turkmenistan. Its location so close to Turkmenistan and ancient Nisa, as the first homeland capital of the ... Read More

Archaeological Surveys in the East Azerbaijan: North of Namin, Ardebil Province

mohammad alizade; reza rezalo; karim hajizade; bheroz afkhmi

Volume 10, Issue 2 , January 2019, , Pages 221-238

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2019.68542

Abstract

Despite the valuable evidences in the northwestern Iran (Ardebil province) archaeology of this region is now remains unknown and its chronological order is located on the basis of the ... Read More

Preliminary Results of the Archaeological survey on the southern Zayandeh Rood Basin, Laran County, Chahar Mahal and Bakhtiari Province

ali norozi; Mohsen Heydari Dastenaei

Volume 10, Issue 1 , August 2018, , Pages 207-226

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2018.135136.142225

Abstract

Chahar Mahal and Bakhtiari province witnesses a long period of human occupations. It is due to for the geography and environmental factors such as its location on the highly mountainous ... Read More Chahar Mahal and Bakhtiari province witnesses a long period of human occupations. It is due to for the geography and environmental factors such as its location on the highly mountainous regions as well as the existence of permanent water resources, small plains, deep valleys and the presence of tribal and nomadic roads. One of these mountainous regions is the Laran County, which is in fact a relatively long valley with smaller suburbs. This section includes the southern aquiferous of Zayandeh-Rud Basin and its branches and the eastern portion of the Karoon River Basin. This region is perhaps one of the few areas of the country where no major archaeological activities have been performed yet. Considering the geographical location and environmental capabilities of the area, carrying out an archaeological survey with the aim of understanding the location of the region in the archaeological studies in Zagros, identifying the factors affecting to the formation, continuity, expansion and disruption of its settlements, and assessing the history of human life developments in the region is necessary. Accordingly, the Laran County was systematic surveyed in 2010. Overall, 210 archaeological sites from the Neolithic period to the contemporary era were identified and recorded. The remains discovered include sites, hills, caves and shelters, cemeteries, bridges, mosques and shrine. In total, 4 settlements from the Neolithic period, 20 settlements of various periods of Chalcolithic, 6 settlements from the Bronze Age 32 sites of the Iron and Achaemenid period, 60 sites from the Parthian and Sassanian periods and 111 ancient sites of the Islamic period were identified. Most of the settlements in this area are located at low altitude and their surface findings have been very poor. Due to the location and morphology of these sites, as well as the studies of the remains of the living nomadic peoples, it seems that most of them are used seasonally. This article is intended to present the preliminary results of this survey work.

Archaeological Survey of Qaleh Iraj, Dating and Function

Seyed Mehdi Mousavinia; Mohammadreza Nemati

Volume 8, Issue 2 , March 2017, , Pages 189-208

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2017.61778

Abstract

Among the Historical Monuments which have been identified in Tehran plain, Qaleh Iraj (known also as Qaleh Gabri) is the biggest in extent by 1470 m. length, 1300 m. Width covering ... Read More

Hierarchical System and Spatial Distribution of Parthian Sites in the Sistan Plain

Zohre Jozi; Reza Mehr Afarin

Volume 5, Issue 2 , March 2014, , Pages 59-77

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2014.50394

Abstract

In Iranian archaeology, Sistan played an important role especially in the Parthian period. This region is well known since it was cross road for Greeksto reach the East, a place for ... Read More

The Archaeological Project of the Mehran Plain (APMP)

Ardeshir Javanmardzadeh; Hassan Fazeli Nashli; Hojjat Darabi

Volume 5, Issue 1 , December 2013, , Pages 11-30

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2013.35939

Abstract

Aiming to identify and record the Prehistoric sites of the Mehrān Plain, the archaeological survey was carried out During the March of 2010; this, has lid to identifying 36 archaeological ... Read More

Settlement Patterns of the Late and Middle Bronze Age Sites of Sarfirouzabad Plain of Kermanshah, West Central Zagros, Iran

Mohammad Amin Mirghaderi; Parasto Hosseini; Sajad Alibeigi; Meisam Nikzad

Volume 5, Issue 1 , December 2013, , Pages 127-144

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2013.35948

Abstract

Archaeological landscape of western Iran is representative of great and important socio-cultural changes in various periods of prehistory in Iran. The region that the Central ... Read More

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Archaeological Analysis of Sassanid Sites in Khomein

Seyed Mehdi Mousavinia Mousavinia

Volume 4, Issue 2 , February 2013, , Pages 123-140

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2013.32123

Abstract

Khomein city is located between the Iranian central plateau and central Zagros. The relative importance of Khomein in Sassanian period is evidenced by presence of distinctive monuments ... Read More

Early villages and prehistoric sites in the Abharroud Basin, North West of Iranian central plateau

Shokouh Khosravi; Hamid Khatib Shahidi; Hamed Vahdatinasab; Sajjad Alibaigi; Abolfazl Aali

Volume 4, Issue 1 , July 2012, , Pages 131-154

https://doi.org/10.22059/jarcs.2012.35379

Abstract

The Abharroud basin is an important region in the archeological studies of northwestern outskirts of the central plateau, and west and northwest of Iran. Considering its environmental ... Read More

Early Bronze Age at Central Zagros, Iran

. Abbas Motarjem; Kamal Aldin Niknami

Volume 3, Issue 2 , February 2012, , Pages 35-54

Abstract

One of the cultural characteristics of eastern zone at central part of Zagros Range during 3rd millennium BC and at early Bronze Age is the extension of the related habitats to Yaniq ... Read More

Archaeological Survey of Potteries in the Site of Nachir Khanloq of the Ray

Firooz Mahjoor; Mohmmad Ebrahimi-Niya; Hossein Sedighiyan

Volume 3, Issue 2 , February 2012, , Pages 173-192

Abstract

With at least 11 hectares site locating on Fashafooyeh from Rey Town, the archaic area of Nachir Khanloq is one of the important regions from Islamic period that has been less noticed ... Read More

Mughan Steppe in Sassanian Period

Karim Alizadeh

Volume 1, Issue 1 , January 2009, , Pages 109-117

Abstract

During last few years, three seasons of excavations at the Ultan Qalasi, one season of stratigraphy in Nadir tepesi and a short season of survey in Mughan Steppe enriched our knowledge ... Read More

Volume 16 (2024)

Volume 15 (2023)

Volume 14 (2022)

Volume 13 (2021)

Volume 12 (2020)

Volume 11 (2019)

Volume 10 (2018)

Volume 9 (2017)

Volume 8 (2016)

Volume 7 (2015)

Volume 6 (2014)

Volume 5 (2013)

Volume 4 (2012)

Volume 3 (2011)

Volume 1 (2009)

Keywords = Archaeological Survey

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