Journal of Archaeological Studies

Abstract Abstract
The Shahneh Poshte Cemetery, located in the Babol district and encompassing approximately 11 hectares, represents one of the richest Iron Age sites in both Mazandaran and Iran. Situated in the foothills of the central Alborz Mountains, the site was excavated over two field seasons in 2018 and 2019. These investigations resulted in the identification of 39 analyzable burials, along with a diverse assemblage of associated grave goods, including pottery vessels, ornaments, decorative items, and weapons. This study seeks to establish both relative and absolute chronologies through comparative analysis of selected artifacts, supplemented by radiocarbon dating of human remains and charcoal samples. In addition, it addresses questions concerning cultural interactions between Shahneh Poshte and both intra-regional sites within Mazandaran and extra-regional sites across the Iranian Plateau. The funerary assemblages indicate that the majority of burials and material culture correspond closely to local Mazandaran stylistic traditions. However, certain objects exhibit affinities with broader trans-regional formal styles characteristic of areas such as Gilan, Gorgan, the central Iranian Plateau, and northwestern Iran during the late second and first millennia BC. Radiocarbon analysis of five human skeletons, yielding dates from the late second millennium to the second half of the first millennium BC, corroborates the relative chronology established through typological comparison. On the basis of combined relative and absolute chronological assessments of the 39 burials, 29 graves can be assigned to Iron Age I–III, while the remaining 10 are attributable to the late Achaemenid–early Parthian period (Iron IV). As at other significant Iron Age cemeteries, pottery constitutes the principal diagnostic category for establishing relative chronology at Shahneh Poshte. The range and typology of ceramic vessels demonstrate strong stylistic and cultural connections with contemporaneous sites within Mazandaran and across Iran more broadly.
Keywords: Shahneh Poshte Cemetery, Relative and Absolute Chronology, Iron Age, Human Burials, Funerary Objects.
 
1. Introduction
The Iron Age and its early stages are among the most questionable and complex archaeological topics in Iran and fundamental questions about it are still being raised after years of archaeological excavations. From the beginning until now, the focus of research on the Iron Age in Iran has been mainly on the Central Plateau, Zagros and especially northwestern regions, which was first established by Dyson’s extensive excavations at Hasanlu and the study of other important sites in the Solduz and Oshnavieh plains such as Yanik Tepe, Geoy Tepe, Haftvan, Dinkhah and Aqrab Tepe (see Dyson, 1965a; Dyson and Muscarella. 1989). In other words, other problems related to study of the Iron Age in Iran are dating, presenting a chronology and dividing it into three stages which was previously done based on the Hasanlu project. Now, with our increasing knowledge of different regions of Iran, the need to review the chronology and the way in which the Bronze Age cultures ended, the transition process and the beginning of the Iron Age is felt more than ever. However, studies related to Iron Age cultures in different regions of Iran have not been conducted in the same way, and many regions including northern slopes of the Alborz and the plains of the southern margin of Caspian Sea are full of ambiguities about processes of the beginning of the Iron Age and its developmental stages. In this regard and based on a study of one of the Iron Age societies in northern Iran, the present study attempts to address the questions of this important field by providing absolute dating of five human burials and two charcoal samples from the settlement area, as well as a comparative study of the cultural materials of the Shahneh Poshte cemetery and their comparative studies within the Iron Age chronology of Mazandaran and Iran. In other words, the combination of absolute and relative dating is one of the most advanced projects in explaining the chronology of Iron Age of Mazandaran and northern Iran, which will partially address the challenges of the limited knowledge of this period in this field and will answer questions about the absolute and relative date and sequence of use of this site, the chronological relationship of the burials of site with each other, as well as explaining the chronology of Iron Age and historical period of Mazandaran and some cultural regions of Iran.
 
2. Discussion
One of the most important aspects of the Shahneh Poshte cemetery study, which distinguishes it among the many Iron Age sites in the Mazandaran region and Iran, is the absolute carbon-14 dating studies on a number of human remains and cultural materials from this cemetery. A total of 7 absolute dating samples, including 5 human burial remains and 2 charcoal samples from two settlement trenches, clearly show that 39 burials at this site are located in the Iron I to Achaemenid-Early Parthian period (Iron IV), such that burial number 3 is related to Iron I (1008-1216 BCE/1192-1047 BCE), burial number 8 is related to late Iron I and early Iron II (917-1108 BCE/936-1043 BCE), burial number 35 is related to the Iron II period (834-925 BCE/822-983 BCE), burial number 18 is related to the late Achaemenid/Iron IV period (338 BCE) and finally burial number 20 belongs to late Achaemenid-Early Parthian period (Iron IV/4th to 2nd centuries BCE). In addition to the absolute dating of human burials, also two absolute dating samples were extracted from trench 7 and contexts 4 and 5 with settlement evidence which are very valuable in their own right. Therefore, two charcoal samples from Context 4 dated 215±30 BCE and Context 5 dated 160±30 BCE in Trench 7 showed that the Shahneh Poshte cemetery was used simultaneously as a cemetery and settlement space after the end of Iron III during the Achaemenid, Seleucid and early Parthian periods (in line with burial findings of Trench 6). Also, comparative studies for relative dating including the morphology of the body and handle and the color of the vessels in forms such as gray, red, brown, red-orange jars and jugs, bowls, vessels with solar bodies and handles, milk jugs, tripod vessels as well as weapons, ornaments and some structures of the graves, in line with the absolute dates of the site, exactly complement the chronological framework of Shahneh Poshte and all can be dated to the Iron Ages I, II, III and finally IV (late Achaemenid to early Parthian), generally the 12th to 3rd centuries BC. In fact, these objects are clearly comparable with contemporaneous intra-regional sites in Mazandaran province as well as other regions including the Gorgan Plain, Gilan, central plateau and northwest Iran. Based on the archaeological evidence, it seems that during the Iron I-III periods and then Iron IV (Achaemenid to early Parthian period), there is a great deal of similarity between Iron Age sites in large parts of Iran. Among these, Iron Age of Mazandaran has the greatest similarity with the Gilan region sites such as Qaleh-e-Kuti I and II, Kalvarz, Meryan, Tandovin, Tol, as well as with the Central Plateau region with sites such as Sagzabad and Qeytariyeh.
 
3. Conclusion
As one of the large and very rich cemeteries in the central Alborz basin in northern Iran, the Shahneh Poshte cemetery is an important site for a case study on the cultural trends and cultures of the Iron Age in northern Iran and the Mazandaran region. It can answer many questions about the processes of the region’s entry into the Iron Age, including socio-cultural changes, economic and nutritional patterns, burial traditions and practices, social classifications and common class systems, structures of graves and cultural-commercial connections within and outside the region through the study of burial data. Initial studies of the cultural materials of this site in the form of 39 burials and settlement contexts, as well as other surface artifacts obtained during two seasons of archaeological excavations indicate abundant typological connections with findings from neighboring Iron Age sites in Mazandaran and other parts of Iran, just as a major part of the chronology and sequence of the Iron Age in different regions of Iran is based on relative and comparative chronology with other regions. In summary, the diverse and diverse collection of graves in the Shahneh Poshte cemetery, based on absolute dating studies (5 samples of human skeletal and 2 charcoal samples from settlement contexts) as well as relative and comparative dating with intra-regional areas of Mazandaran and neighboring areas like the Gorgan Plain, Gilan, Semnan and the central plateau (Tehran, Rey, Qazvin, Karaj and Kashan) indicates a long-term history of use of site from the late 2nd millennium BCE to the early second half of the 1st millennium BCE. More precisely, the people of northern foothills of the Alborz mountain range in the south of the Babol region of Mazandaran used this space and place to bury their dead from the Iron Age I, probably continuously, to the Achaemenid, Seleucid and early Parthian periods (Iron IV) and have used their burial methods and traditions for several generations. The set of 7 absolute dating samples along with the study of dateable burial objects reveals the cultural and social trends of Shahneh Poshteh people society and thus makes a significant contribution to the reconstruction and compilation of the Iron Age chronology of Mazandaran and Iran.

Abstract Abstract
Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad are located in the Southern Zagros, which contains valuable information about settelmeents with a nomadic livelihood and semi-temporary agricultural during the Islamic era, especially the middle and late Islamic centuries. Cham-Shir area in Dogonbadan city informs us about the settlements of this period. Site 089 of Cham-Shir, according to the architectural structures and the type of pottery obtained from the excavation of 2022, is a settlement characterized by pastoral nomadism with agriculture. Favorable geographical conditions and special natural complications, such as the passage of the Zohreh River and green slopes that better affect the surrounding environment in the second half of the year, make the studied area a favorable place for nomadic communities with vertical displacement. The site’s excavation includes architectural and pottery data that, when analyzed, show a close relationship with this way of life. In this site’s architectural structure, several spaces were created for human habitation to place items related to this lifestyle and one or two larger structures attached to the living space to keep livestock. Along with the architectural collection, pottery finds were found which, according to their form, their quality of construction and possible use, further confirm the relationship of these architectural collections with the nomadic style. Site 089 includes five separate building units with wide dimensions, revealed during the excavation in two units with different architectural structures using the same raw materials and construction techniques. In these architectural units, all kinds of Istakhr-type pottery, pseudo-prehistoric pottery, glazed pottery, and simple pottery of the Islamic period were found, similar to the examples obtained from Fars, Khuzestan, Kerman, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari. The study of architectural units led to the relative chronology of the site.
Keywords: Cham-Shir, Site 089, Middle and Late Islamic Period, Nomadism and Semi-temporary Agriculture.
 
1. Introduction
Site 089, situated on the slopes of Cham Cheru Mountain within a narrow valley, occupies a key position in advancing our understanding of Islamic-era settlement patterns. Its strategic location linked via a gravel road to Gachsaran and the surrounding plains and villages of Babamonir, Mishan, and Mahor offers critical insights into the region’s nomadic lifeways. The presence of the Zahra River and verdant slopes, particularly during the second half of the year, has rendered the area favorable for seasonal transhumance. Due to the poor quality and stony nature of the soil in this sedimentary zone, conditions have historically been unsuitable for the development of permanent agricultural villages, a pattern that appears consistent with past land use.
The study of this area highlights the richness of nomadic cultural heritage and associated settlement traditions. Three major features underscore the significance of Site 089:
1. Its proximity to Cham Cheru Mountain, particularly the presence of architectural remains on the summit; 2. The distribution of cemeteries and arched stone structures scattered both within and around the site; 3. The notable concentration of stone-cut architectural elements, indicating the area’s distinct role within the broader context of nomadic heritage in the region.
These attributes position Site 089 as a valuable case for modeling patterns of nomadic settlement and for guiding future archaeological investigations. The present study aims to establish the relative chronology of architectural features and to develop a typology of pottery uncovered during excavation. Key research questions include:
• To what extent do the site’s architectural remains correspond with known settlement strategies and chronological frameworks? Which historical periods can be assigned to the ceramic assemblage based on comparative analysis? Can architectural and ceramic evidence at the site illuminate patterns of interaction between the Cham-Shir region and adjacent areas?
To address these questions, the study employed a combination of fieldwork, archival research, descriptive-analytical methods, and comparative analyses. Following excavation, the architectural structures were reconstructed in plan form to support the dating of architectural phases and contextualize the associated ceramic materials. Pottery finds were then classified and subjected to typological analysis and comparative chronology, allowing for broader cross-regional comparisons.
 
2. Discussion
Nomadic life and animal husbandry result from human interaction with the surrounding environment; in this way of life, we see the regular movement of human groups within a single ecological territory. Although this lifestyle seems very simplistic at first glance, a regular and specific socio-economic system within its divisions should be studied separately from single-settlement, rural and urban units. However, very little evidence of this way of life remains. The necessary awareness of this lifestyle depends on accepting it as an independent entity with certain remaining material characteristics. One of the most important indicators is the architectural culture of these tribes, which took on a special form after establishing their settlements. The characteristic features of these architectural structures are their location next to springs and rivers, an ecological space with pastures and meadows around permanent settlements, location at higher altitudes or on the edge of natural hills, and the use of local materials such as stone. This situation leads to the formation of the cultural landscape of the nomads. These establishments have a periodic geometric pattern, mostly built based on the slope of the land, security and visibility of the area. These structures’ overall form and structure are a function of their function and how they are used. 
One of the most complex issues under investigation is identifying the distinguishing features of the architectural structures and the factors influencing the formation of their cultural landscape. These factors encompass the physical, cultural, and social dimensions of the society in which they developed. A clear example of this can be seen in the construction of buildings on sloped terrain, necessitating the creation of terraces, the use of minimally processed materials such as porcelain stoneware, the internal division of space without partition walls, and the presence of specific entrance arrangements. These structures exhibit hierarchical patterns that appear closely linked to the socio-spatial organization of nomadic communities.
 
3. Conclusion
In the flatter areas, architectural planning involved the use of higher-quality materials and more regular geometric layouts. In contrast, as one moves further up the slope, structures tend to vary more in size and shape, their architectural integrity diminishes, and in some instances, natural features were used as enclosures. A significant feature of these settlements is the positioning of residential units along gentle slopes, providing wide visibility and control over the surrounding landscape a strategic consideration in nomadic settlement planning.
The ceramic assemblage from the site corresponds well with the architectural phases and dates primarily from the middle to the late centuries of the Islamic period. Notably, Istakhr-type ceramics characteristic of the middle Islamic centuries have parallels with contemporaneous sites in Fars Province, which is likely their place of origin. The assemblage includes glazed, unglazed, and plain wares that are datable to the same general timeframe and are commonly found at Islamic-period sites across Iran. Additionally, the site yielded pseudo-prehistoric ceramics, which also date from the middle to late Islamic centuries. These are comparable to pottery discovered in regions such as Fars, Khuzestan, and Kerman (particularly the Narmashir Plain settlements), as well as in several other areas across the Iranian plateau.

Abstract The Mesolithic period and its transition to the Neolithic period in Western Asia is one of the most important stages of human cultural evolution during which. humans gradually changed their way of life and cultural behavior. After millennia of living as mobile hunter-gatherers, these changes in human lifestyle were so significant that some scientists consider them to have triggered the Anthropocene (Smith and Zeder, 2013). Therefore, the study of the Mesolithic hunter-gatherer way of life and its transformation into a Neolithic society is crucial for investigating the first steps and possible triggers of this fundamental change. A small number of important archaeological sites in the southeastern edge of the Caspian Sea coast provide rich sequences of hunter-gatherers dating from about 15,000 to 10,000 years ago with abundant cultural materials. One of those, Hotu Cave located nearby the modern Iranian city Behshahr, was firstly described by the American anthropologist Carlton Coon in 1949 and then excavated by him in 1951. Due to various reasons, a proper report on this cave was never presented. Our new activities at the site after 70 years aim to establish a secure chronology from the Mesolithic to the Parthian period and to link obvious gaps in the cave sequence to climatic and environmental changes during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. The new excavation at Hotu Cave is not only useful to contextualize the data from the Coon excavations, but has also helped us to generate additional data to propose a regional chronology from the Mesolithic onwards. In this paper we present not only the current data on the chronology of the cave, but also all the chronological schemes attempted by scholars, which we have brought together. Our project not only includes activities in Hotu Cave, but also carried out excavations in 2022 and 2023 at the two other key sites of the relevant Mesolithic-Neolithic transitional horizon, Kamarband Cave and Komishani Tappe, which lies in front of Komishani Cave. The material culture from the recent excavations is very important in proposing a new model of the transition from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic for the Iranian highlands that goes beyond the Zagros region, which – until now – has been considered an independent core region of early domestication and Neolithization.

Abstract Prehistoric investigations in the southeastern region of the Caspian Sea commenced more than a century ago, resulting in the identification of several prominent archaeological sites, notably the caves of Kamarband, Hotu, Komishan, and Altappeh. These caves have become well-known for their rich archaeological deposits, spanning from approximately 16,000 years ago in the Mesolithic period to the Historic period. Hotu Cave, situated on a cliff along the northern slope of the Alborz mountain range, gained significant attention following its initial excavation in the 1950s by Carleton S. Coon. Excavations conducted over two field seasons lasting nine weeks each revealed valuable insights into the region's prehistoric occupation. In 2021, a team led by Hasan Fazeli from the University of Tehran undertook the re-excavation of Hotu Cave, unearthing 124 archaeological contexts spanning from the Mesolithic to the Historic period. Among the notable findings were 1,539 chipped stone artifacts, predominantly crafted from locally sourced Behshahr chert. The chipped stone assemblage from Hotu Cave exhibits distinctive characteristics indicative of different periods, including pressure removal technique evident in blade-lets and sickle trapezoids dating back to the Neolithic period, alongside ubiquitous scrapers and notched-denticulated tools found across all layers. Technological shifts within the chipped stone assemblage, observed during the recent excavations, reflect changes in subsistence patterns inferred from archaeozoological research on animal remains. However, the interpretation of these technological and subsistence changes is nuanced, as it remains unclear whether they occurred locally and gradually or resulted from external influences, such as demographic movements or the diffusion of ideas from neighboring regions. The chronological gap between the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods complicates the determination of the precise mechanisms driving these transformations solely based on material evidence from Hotu Cave. Further interdisciplinary research integrating archaeological, chronological, and environmental data is warranted to elucidate the dynamics of cultural change in this region during the transition from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic period