Haleh Helali Esfahani; Seyed Mansour Seyed Sajjadi
Abstract
AbstractShahr-i Sokhta occupies a distinctive and significant position among the archaeological sites of the third millennium BCE on the Iranian Plateau due to the richness and diversity ...
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AbstractShahr-i Sokhta occupies a distinctive and significant position among the archaeological sites of the third millennium BCE on the Iranian Plateau due to the richness and diversity of its cultural materials. The extensive array of artifacts recovered from the site provides valuable resources for investigating the behaviors, worldviews, and technological capabilities of humans during a formative historical period particularly in relation to challenges still present in contemporary industry, such as textile production. A key avenue for exploring this cultural complexity lies in the study of textiles recovered from the site. By analyzing the types of fibers and weaving techniques employed, as well as the associated tools used in textile production, researchers can gain insight into the innovative practices and material culture of the inhabitants. These artifacts narrate the ingenuity and functional artistry of the community, revealing how tools were utilized and how textiles were crafted. This study employs a descriptive-comparative methodology to examine the most representative examples of woven textiles, using morphological imaging, tables, and diagrams. These samples are comparatively analyzed in terms of their structure, function, and congruence with the tools found at the site. Moreover, the study draws parallels with contemporary analogues, aiming to reconstruct and illustrate aspects of everyday life in the Bronze Age. Through this approach, the research seeks to revive an understanding of Shahr-i Sokhta’s cultural environment and to highlight the role of its inhabitants as artist-craftsmen within the broader context of early textile industry development.Keywords: Shahr-i- Sokhta, Archaeological Textiles, Weaving Tools, Bronze Age, Textile Heritage. 1. IntroductionUndoubtedly, Sistan was one of the first parts of Iran that played an important role in the formation of ancient civilizations. Near the end of the Helmand River, there are low but wide hills called Shahr-i Sokhta, which is one of the largest urban centers in ancient Iran (Seyyed Sajjadi 2018: 322). The study of cultural materials related to textiles and weaving, while important to understanding this site, has not previously been conducted.The archaeological site of Shahr-i Sokhta is situated adjacent to an ancient delta, which today is heavily covered by sand, rendering its original features difficult to discern. Additionally, due to prevailing west-to-east wind patterns, the site has experienced significant erosion, particularly in its western section. Continuous exposure to wind currents has led to a decrease in elevation on the western side, while the eastern portion retains a comparatively higher elevation. The erosion has also caused sharp, vertical cuts along the walls of the mound, shaped primarily by water action.The mounds of Shahr-i Sokhta extend in a generally north-south orientation, with an approximate length of 2,220 meters and a width of around 1,090 meters (Biscione et al., 1977, p. 104). Cultural and archaeological remains are distributed across an area of roughly 151 hectares, making it the largest known prehistoric settlement in the eastern Iranian Plateau. Over the 4,000 years since its abandonment, the site has been significantly altered by natural erosive forces, such as the strong Sistan winds and seasonal rainfall. 2. DiscussionShahr-i Sokhta represents not only one of the most prominent cities of the Iranian Plateau but also serves as a vast laboratory within a compact desert environment. The study of cultural materials at the site extends beyond traditional archaeological inquiries. Through the examination of diverse artifacts, scholars can trace the development of multiple fields of knowledge and technology on the plateau. These include, but are not limited to: archaeology, sociology, trade and international exchange, the history of religion, settlement and urbanization, architecture, traditional arts and crafts, writing systems, medicine and its allied sciences, zoology, nutrition, agriculture, animal husbandry, entomology, botany, geology, metallurgy, ceramics, jewelry-making, weaving, and woodworking.The city can be divided into three main sectors and three subsidiary zones: (1) a central core encompassing both the eastern and central residential quarters and associated monuments; (2) a northwestern industrial zone; and (3) a southern cemetery area (Biscione et al., 1974, p. 104).The architectural remains of the residential sector reveal an organized spatial layout, with buildings and housing units separated by alleys and streets. Construction materials include adobe, clay, wood, and matting. Residential units typically consist of six to ten rooms, outfitted with doors, thresholds, stairways, floors, ceilings, ovens, and in some instances, animal mangers.A wide variety of portable objects have been recovered from the site. In addition to ceramic vessels, noteworthy finds include human and animal figurines fashioned from clay and stone, wooden and woven artifacts, textile tools, fragments of cloth and rope, seals and seal impressions, personal ornaments, and utilitarian tools. Among the more distinguished items are marble vessels, stone handles, and polished stones of Asian origin. Many decorative objects were crafted from imported semi-precious stones such as lapis lazuli, agate, and turquoise sourced from distant mining regions and transported to Shahr-i Sokhta. These materials, particularly lapis lazuli, were cut and shaped by local artisans and subsequently exported to distant lands, including regions beyond the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia, as part of long-distance trade networks.Stone materials such as marble, basalt, and limestone were used to manufacture tools, beads, and various types of vessels. A significant number of seals and seal impressions made from diverse materials have been uncovered, indicating their administrative and official functions. Among the most important discoveries are two clay tablets: one inscribed with early Elamite script and the other marked with a series of numerical figures and a seal impression (Sajjadi and Moradi, 2022, pp. 101–109).Today, the study and analysis of ancient artifacts is a crucial means of reconstructing past lifeways and understanding key socio-economic practices of earlier periods. One such area of investigation is the domestication and breeding of various animal species for the purpose of acquiring fibers such as down, wool, and hair for textile production (Strand, 2010b). As the corpus of documented ancient artifacts grows, so too does the body of historical, artistic, and cultural knowledge available to archaeologists, historians, and specialists across disciplines. Within this broader framework, the study of textiles and associated weaving tools from Shahr-i Sokhta constitutes a particularly significant area of inquiry, owing to the substantial number of preserved textile fragments found at the site.To date, approximately 350 textile fragments from Shahr-i Sokhta have been cataloged as part of conservation and restoration efforts (Helali Esfahani, 2010). Alongside these, a number of wooden weaving implements have also been recovered. These tools are essential for understanding the techniques of textile production at the site. Notably, some of the weaving patterns observed in these fragments appear to correspond to techniques recognizable in modern textile practices, offering valuable comparative opportunities (Costantini et al., 2007 [1386]: 339–348). This article focuses specifically on the abundance and diversity of textile-related materials uncovered at Shahr-i Sokhta, which position the site as a uniquely rich source of prehistoric textile evidence.All fabric samples examined in this study have undergone technical analyses of their fibers, which were categorized into several primary and secondary groups. Key criteria included the type of fiber, spinning technique, and fiber color. In terms of weaving analysis, the classification was based on the structural characteristics of the weave and evidence for intended use (Helali Esfahani, 2009). The central aim of this research is to present aspects of daily life in Shahr-i Sokhta during the third millennium BCE through a detailed examination of fabric types and the tools used in their production.Previous studies on Shahr-i Sokhta’s textiles have investigated both the variety and abundance of fiber types. For instance, Irene Good has examined fiber analysis in order to reconstruct patterns of animal domestication and biodiversity relevant to textile use (Good, 1999). Similarly, Lorenzo Costantini and colleagues have explored warp types, spinning stages, and several weaving patterns evident in the recovered materials (Costantini et al., 2007 [1386]: 339–340).This article is the outcome of fieldwork conducted by the author, who served as site supervisor for three excavation seasons at Shahr-i Sokhta. During these campaigns, fiber types, spinning methods, and physical properties of the approximately 350 preserved fabric fragments were systematically documented and analyzed. It is important to note that no comprehensive research in Iran has yet matched prehistoric textile tools and fabrics from Shahr-i Sokhta with their modern analogues. As such, this article represents the first systematic attempt in Iranian archaeology to establish such correlations. 3. ConclusionWhile similar analyses have been conducted at other archaeological sites internationally often focusing on tool typologies and their temporal contexts these studies have generally treated tools and fabrics in isolation, without integrating them into a comparative analysis with modern textile production (Olofsson et al., 2015). No analogous study exists, either in traditional or industrial textile contexts, that explicitly traces the technological continuity between prehistoric weaving practices and contemporary textile methods. Therefore, this research offers a novel approach, combining archaeological data with comparative textile studies to reconstruct the technological and cultural significance of textile production in Shahr-i Sokhta.
