Parvaneh Ahmadtajari; Abbas Motarjem; Mehdi Zare
Abstract
AbstractEarthquakes are natural events that are beyond human control, but they create consequences and changes that transform, alter, or modify human structures, settlements, and cultures. ...
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AbstractEarthquakes are natural events that are beyond human control, but they create consequences and changes that transform, alter, or modify human structures, settlements, and cultures. Godin Tepe is one of the ancient sites in western Iran where evidence of at least two earthquake events in different periods has been identified through archaeological excavations. One of these destructive earthquakes occurred at the end of Phase 2 of Layer III at Godin Tepe, which appears to have led to environmental and cultural changes not only at Godin Tepe but also throughout the Kangavar Plain. One piece of evidence for this is the significant reduction in settlement sites during the period following Phase II of Godin III in the Kangavar Plain; this decline in settlements is also observed in the Iron Age in the region. Towards the end of the Godin III2 period and the (Post Godin III) IIIp-2 period, changes occurred in the settlements of the Kangavar Plain, indicating a shift in lifestyle from sedentism to nomadism. In this context, the present study seeks to explore the reasons behind this change in settlement patterns by examining the contributing factors. The main research question is: How can the factors influencing the change in the settlement pattern of the Kangavar Plain after the III2 period of Godin are investigated. The research method is based on documentary data collection and employs a descriptive-analytical approach. In this study, climatic factors, political conditions (war and violence), and the earthquake that occurred during this period in the region were examined. Given the climatic and political stability of the region in the second half of the second millennium BCE, the earthquake is considered a significant reason for the change in the lifestyle of the people in the Kangavar region.Keywords: Arthquake, Kangavar Plain, Godin III2, Godin IIIp-2, Settlement Pattern Change, Nomadism. 1. IntroductionEarthquakes are natural events that have occurred in Iran since ancient times, both in prehistoric and historical periods, due to the country’s seismic activity and the presence of active faults in the region. Disaster archaeology, in the context of earthquakes, examines and evaluates the impact of such disasters on communities after their occurrence, assessing the vulnerability of societies that experience them. It proposes earthquakes as one of the drivers of cultural change (Torrence & Grattan, 2002: 1, 2). During the archaeological excavations conducted by Cuyler Young between 1965 and 1973 at Godin Tepe in the central Zagros region (Young & Levine, 1974), evidence from the Godin III period, specifically in phases III5, III4, and III2, suggested that earthquakes had occurred at the end of these phases. Young hypothesized that these earthquakes led to the abandonment of Godin Tepe for periods of up to a century before the site was reoccupied (Young & Levine, 1974: 27, 28; Henrickson, 1987: 216, 220, 224; Gopnik & Rothman, 2011: 198, 200, 205).In the III2 layer of Godin, it is observed that towards the end of this phase, the lifestyle of the communities in the Kangavar Plain shifted from sedentism to nomadism. Additionally, in the subsequent period, there was a significant reduction in the number of settlement sites, which is inferred from the increase in non-settlement locations during this period in the region (Henrickson, 1986: 24). This research aims to identify the reasons behind the change in the settlement pattern of the Kangavar region from sedentism to nomadism in the late Godin III2 period, as well as the decline in settlements in the plain after the Godin III2 period. It seeks to investigate the factors influencing this shift in the region’s lifestyle. 2. Analysis and decisionThe central Zagros region, with its numerous active faults, is considered one of the seismically active areas of Iran. Evidence of prehistoric earthquakes in this region has been uncovered through excavations at Godin Tepe. The III2 layer of Godin Tepe is one of the layers where evidence of an earthquake, such as thick mud-brick debris, displaced walls, collapsed structures, and broken pottery on floors, was discovered during Kyle Young’s excavations at the site (Young, 1969: 11). Young and Henrickson believe that the final abandonment of this layer was likely due to a severe earthquake that occurred at the end of the Godin III2 period (around 1600 BCE) (Young & Levine, 1974: 22; Henrickson, 2011: 270). Based on archaeological investigations in the Kangavar region and its surrounding areas, it can be stated that during or towards the end of the Godin III2 phase, there was an increase in nomadic lifestyles, which may have led to a rise in the number of settlement sites in phase III2 (Henrickson, 1986: 24). In the subsequent period (post-III2 phase), the distribution pattern of sites from this phase suggests the migration of pastoral nomads. So far, evidence from this phase has only been found in burial contexts during excavations. The presence of remote cemeteries, separate from ancient mounds, indicates that significant social and economic changes may have occurred (Henrickson, 1987: 213; Mazahéri, 2013: 81). Cemeteries unrelated to settlement sites are considered reflective of a nomadic lifestyle (Tala’i, 2014: 107).Based on this, it is conceivable that after the catastrophic earthquake during the Godin III phase 2, the surviving population must have sought ways to continue their lives. Archaeological evidence does not indicate the exact timing or season of the earthquake, but we can reasonably assume, given the population decline or severe reduction, that the remaining population migrated to surrounding areas. This is similar to what happened in contemporary times following the 1957 Farsinaj and 1963 Karkaneh earthquakes in the Kangavar region, where some villages were abandoned or relocated due to severe destruction. The relocation of some villages was due to the extensive damage to houses, making debris removal and reconstruction impractical, leading to the construction of new homes in different locations while leaving the old villages in ruins. Additionally, some villages were abandoned due to water shortages caused by the drying up of springs following these earthquakes (Rahbar & Young, 1975: 41, 53, 111; Mohammadi Far & Motarjem, 2001: 172, 220).Given these reasons, the change in settlement patterns and the decline in settlements after the second phase of Godin III can be attributed to the earthquake at Godin Tepe. Earthquakes are often accompanied by changes in the environment and water resources in affected areas, sometimes causing springs to dry up, altering river courses, reducing water levels, or increasing river flows. Additionally, earthquakes leave psychological trauma and fear among survivors, as evidenced by research on recent earthquakes in Iran, such as the 2017 Sarpol-e Zahab earthquake, which shows that severe fear, stress, and phobias related to ceilings and nighttime are psychological impacts of post-earthquake situations (Elyasi Sarzeli, 2019: 5). The consequences of such events affect earthquake survivors for years, even across three generations (Persho et al., 2020: 1399). Therefore, changes in environmental conditions, loss of water resources, and fear of another earthquake could be reasons for the shift in settlement patterns in the Kangavar Plain during the mid-second millennium BC. 3. ConclusionBased on archaeological investigations conducted in the central Zagros region, research indicates that during the mid-second millennium BC and the period following Godin III2, there was a gradual shift in the settlement pattern of the region from sedentism to nomadism. In this study, the general factors influencing cultural changes in the region were examined. Climatic conditions were analyzed, and it was determined that although the region experienced three cold and dry climatic events during the late Holocene, the climate in the mid-second millennium BCE was warm, humid, and favorable, ruling it out as the primary reason for the change in settlement patterns. Another factor that occurred during this time in the region, with evidence found in the Godin III2 layer, is an earthquake. According to the excavator of the site, the earthquake occurred towards the end of this period. The evidence suggests that the earthquake was significant. Given that earthquake evidence has also been observed in the III5 and III4 layers of Godin Tepe, as well as the high seismic activity of the Kangavar region due to active faults such as Sahneh, Dinavar, and Nahavand, the occurrence of such an earthquake was not unexpected. Additionally, investigations in the Kangavar region revealed a significant decline in the number of settlement sites from the Godin III2 phase to the IIIp-2 phase. During this period, the total area occupied by settlements in the plain was estimated to be around 7 hectares, compared to approximately 27 hectares in the preceding period. This statistic itself highlights the collapse of settlements in the Kangavar Plain following the earthquake.
